In recent decades, ungulates have expanded in number and range in Europe. This review aims to analyze the impact of ungulate browsing in different forest ecosystems and identify the main driving factors and trends. In total, 155 studies were analyzed in preparing this review, across 19 European countries. In Europe, the main browsers are represented by roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.), red deer (Cervus elaphus L.), moose (Alces alces L.), chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra L.), and fallow deer (Dama dama L.). Regarding browsing severity, they frequently exceeded 50%, meaning that over half of the saplings were browsed. Ungulate density was the main driving factor of browsing severity, with areas exhibiting high browsing pressure often having more than ten individuals per square kilometer. The type of silvicultural system used played a vital role in the severity of browsing, and trends in foraging for preferred tree species were identified. Fencing was the most common non-harmful protection method used, while hunting management was the most efficient method for controlling deer numbers and browsing intensity. Large carnivores were missing in most study areas, but in the areas where they were present, they played a significant role in creating a chain reaction of ecological impacts. Considering the significant impact of ungulate browsing on forest ecosystems, there is a pressing need for more research to comprehend and effectively mitigate the effects of deer presence comprehensively.

Wood colour metrics are increasingly being used in wood technology and ecology studies. Researchers usually determine the colours of the wood after treatment or in different habitats. There is very little research dedicated to the problem of colour variations among one specific species harvested in different forests or regions. The main purpose of the current research is to reveal and estimate the colour variability of oak species. For this study, a total of 89 samples were taken from the heartwood of seven oak species (Quercus robur L., Quercus cerris L., Quercus rubra L., Quercus pedunculiflora K. Koch., Quercus pubescens Willd., Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl., and Quercus palustris Muenchh.). The CIELAB system was used for the assessment of the colour differences. To determine the colour groups and variations, K-means clustering was used. The results show that colour variations do exist. According to the cluster analysis, at least five types of oak wood can be distinguished (because in some clusters, very few samples were present) in the investigated forests. The differences are mainly observed in terms of the lightness (L*) and yellowness (b*). Redness is not a feature by which oak wood differs, but the wood can be brighter or more yellow in some of the samples. The density of the Romanian oaks in the sample does not influence the colour coordinates. The only coordinate affected is a*, but with a very small probability.

The genus Swietenia includes two mahogany species, Swietenia macrophylla (King.), commonly known as Honduran mahogany, and Swietenia mahagoni (L.) Jacq, commonly known as Cuban mahogany. There are reports of morphologically intermediate forms between Cuban and Honduran mahogany that have been localized in some Caribbean islands. The main objective of this research is to distinguish morphologically intermediate forms between the parental species S. mahagoni and S. macrophylla based on leaf morphological characters. Phenotypic data from a total of 357 mahogany trees were collected in the province of Sancti Spiritus, Cuba. Rachis length, petiole length, leaflet length, leaflet width, number of leaflets and number of nerves were evaluated. Morphological descriptor analysis revealed significant differences in the morphometric variables of the evaluated leaves, with rachis length, number of leaflets, leaflet length, petiole length, leaflet width, and number of nerves being significantly higher in S. macrophylla than in S. mahagoni. ANOVA reflected the variance between all leaf morphological parameters evaluated between the two pure species with statistically significant difference. Using the function obtained in the first DC of the two species, the individuals in the mixed stands were classified into 71 morphologically intermediate forms, 45 S. macrophylla and 64 S. mahagoni. In the second DC with the two species and the morphologically intermediate forms, Wilks’ partial lambda indicates that the variable "leaflet length" with 0.67 contributed most to the overall discrimination.