Background: The prevalence of kidney stones in the world is increasing and environmental factors seem to play a major role in this issue. The aim of the present study was to investigate the prevalence of risk factors of kidney stones in the adult population of Rafsanjan city based on the data of the Rafsanjan Cohort Study (RCS). Methods: In the baseline phase of this study, 10,000 people aged 35 to 70 years are enrolled in the RCS, as one of the prospective epidemiological research studies in Iran. From this population, 9932 participants completed related demographic questionnaires as well as reported a history of diabetes mellitus, kidney stone, and hypertension diseases. The obtained data were analyzed using univariable and multivariable logistics regression. Results: According to the obtained results, 46.54% of the studied population were male and 53.46% were female. The mean age of the participants was 49.94 ± 9.56 years. 2392 people accounting for 24.08% of the population had kidney stones. After adjustment of the variables, six variables of gender, WSI, no consumption of purified water, BMI, and history of hypertension and diabetes were found to be significant related factors of kidney stone disease. Conclusions: Gender, hypertension, obesity, diabetes, and personal habits like alcohol consumption, opium use and, cigarette smoking are effective in the development of kidney stones. So, by identifying the susceptible patients and teaching them, the burden of the disease on society and the individual can be reduced. The results of this study are helpful to health care providers for preventive planning for kidney stone disease.

Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of orexin-A (OX-A) and the orexin-1 receptor antagonist SB-334867 (SB) on motor and cognitive functions in a rat model of Parkinson’s disease. Methods: Parkinson was induced by intracerebroventricular (i.c.v) injection of 6- hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) (200 μg/rat). 72 h later, the treatment was initiated by i.c.v administration of SB (30 nmol/rat) and/or OX-A (0.3 nmol/rat) for 10 days. Motor functions were monitored using rotarod and hanging tests. Cognitive function was assessed by passive avoidance test (Shuttle box). Results: OX-A administration in 6-OHDA treated rats remarkably increased the time which animals run on rod (in rotarod test) and also the latency to fall (in hanging test) (P < 0.01 and P < 0.001, respectively). Conversely, administration of SB in 6-OHDA-treated rats decreased the mentioned indices (P < 0.05 for latency to fall). Administration of agonist and/or antagonist of orexin-1 receptors had no significant effect on 6-OHDA induced cognitive impairment in rats. Conclusion: Results of this study suggest that the orexinergic system might be involved in sensory-motor deficits of Parkinson’s disease.

The imbalance between pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines plays an important role in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Thymus vulgaris (thyme) as a traditional medicinal plant has been reported to exert antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects. Therefore, this study evaluated the modulatory effects of Thymus vulgaris on the clinical symptoms, histopathological scores, and the production of some anti-inflammatory (TGF-β, IL-4, and IL-10) and pro-inflammatory (IFN-γ, IL-6 and IL-17) cytokines in EAE model. EAE was induced by MOG35-55 peptide and mice were treated intra-peritoneally (i.p) with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) in the control group or thyme extract (50 or 100 mg/kg of body weight, every other day) in thyme-treated EAE groups, from day 0 to +21 of post MOG immunization. Mice were sacrificed at day 22, and splenocytes were isolated and re-stimulated in vitro with MOG in order to measure the cytokine production and proliferation of re-stimulated cells by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method and WST-1 reagent, respectively. The clinical symptoms and histopathological scores of the CNS were lower in thyme-treated than EAE control group. Furthermore, the production of IFN-γ and IL-6 by splenocytes was lower in thyme-treated EAE than in the control group. The production of IL-10 and TGF-β increased in mice treated with thyme extract compared to the control group. In this study, we showed for the first time that the immunomodulatory effects of Thymus vulgaris in EAE model. Thus, the possible therapeutic potential of thyme for treatment of MS could be considered in future research.

The Achillea millefolium L. (Yarrow) is a common herb which is widely being used, worldwide. Achillea is being used for treatment of many disorders since centuries. It is considered safe for supplemental use and flavonoids such as kaempferol, luteolin and apigenin are of main constituents present in Achillea. Most of both antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of this herb have been attributed to its flavonoid content. Oxidative and inflammatory processes play important roles in pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Present review was aimed to review the latest literature evidences regarding application of Achillea and/or its three main flavonoid constituents on epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease and stroke.