Small extracellular vesicles called exosomes are produced by cells and contain a range of biomolecules, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Exosomes have been implicated in the development and spread of cancer, and recent studies have shown that their contents may be exploited as biomarkers for early detection and ongoing surveillance of the disease. In this review article, we summarize the current knowledge on exosomes as biomarkers of cancer. We discuss the various methods used for exosome isolation and characterization, as well as the different types of biomolecules found within exosomes that are relevant for cancer diagnosis and prognosis. We also highlight recent studies that have demonstrated the utility of exosomal biomarkers in different types of cancer, such as lung cancer, breast cancer, and pancreatic cancer. Overall, exosomes show great promise as noninvasive biomarkers for cancer detection and monitoring. Exosomes have the ability to transform cancer diagnostic and therapeutic paradigms, providing promise for more efficient and individualized. This review seeks to serve as an inspiration for new ideas and research in the never-ending fight against cancer. Moreover, further studies are needed to validate their clinical utility and establish standardized protocols for their isolation and analysis. With continued research and development, exosomal biomarkers have the potential to revolutionize cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Marine pollution from anthropogenic activities poses a severe threat to aquatic environments globally. Contaminants such as microplastics, hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and pesticides pervade coastal and ocean waters, causing significant harm to marine life and ecosystems. To address this, biological approaches present sustainable remediation alternatives. This review systematically evaluates recent advancements in bioaugmentation strategies for mitigating marine pollution. We begin by discussing key pollutant types, their sources, and their impacts. The review then explores various biological techniques, including microbial degradation, plant-assisted methods, and nano-enabled approaches. Significant advancements in predictive modeling, genetic engineering, and 'omics tools are also examined. Our comprehensive literature analysis (2010–2024) highlights progress in several areas: the optimization of tailored microbial consortia, development of pollution sensors, and integration of nanotechnologies. Notable achievements include the enhanced functional range and resilience of genetically engineered agents and the discovery of novel degraders through 'omics tools. Despite these advancements, challenges remain. Knowledge gaps exist regarding the interactions between diverse marine microbes, and scaling bioaugmentation to address complex pollutant mixtures poses ongoing difficulties. Addressing these challenges requires sustained efforts across scientific, policy, and social domains to fully realize the potential of bioaugmentation for ocean protection. Graphical Abstract

Breast cancer remains the most prevalent malignant tumor and a leading cause of cancer-related mortality among women worldwide. The disease comprises distinct molecular subtypes that influence tumor behavior, metastatic potential, and therapeutic response. This review presents recent advances in breast cancer research, with a particular emphasis on molecular and epigenetic mechanisms that contribute to tumor development, progression, and treatment resistance. Key signaling pathways—including estrogen receptor (ER), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), Notch, fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR), Wnt, and Hedgehog—play essential roles in the regulation of mammary stem cells and oncogenesis. Increasing evidence highlights the significance of epigenetic alterations such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, and microRNA expression in modulating gene activity relevant to tumor initiation and therapy resistance. Epigenetic molecular targets, including DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs), histone deacetylases (HDACs), EZH2, and non-coding RNAs, are gaining attention for their potential use in diagnosis, prognosis, and targeted therapy. Integration of multigene panel testing with epigenetic biomarkers has facilitated improved risk assessment and the development of individualized treatment strategies. Moreover, novel therapeutic approaches—such as CAR-T cell therapy, nanoparticle-mediated drug delivery systems, and the involvement of circular RNAs (circRNAs) in immune modulation—offer promising directions for precision medicine. This review consolidates current insights into the molecular and epigenetic landscape of breast cancer to provide a comprehensive understanding of disease complexity and to inform the development of more effective, personalized treatment options.

Skin cancer comprises one-third of all diagnosed cancer cases and remains a major health concern. Genetic and environmental parameters serve as the two main risk factors associated with the development of skin cancer, with ultraviolet radiation being the most common environmental risk factor. Studies have also found fair complexion, arsenic toxicity, indoor tanning, and family history among the prevailing causes of skin cancer. Prevention and early diagnosis play a crucial role in reducing the frequency and ensuring effective management of skin cancer. Recent studies have focused on exploring minimally invasive or non-invasive diagnostic technologies along with artificial intelligence to facilitate rapid and accurate diagnosis. The treatment of skin cancer ranges from traditional surgical excision to various advanced methods such as phototherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and combination therapy. Recent studies have focused on immunotherapy, with the introduction of new checkpoint inhibitors and personalized immunotherapy enhancing treatment efficacy. Advancements in multi-omics, nanotechnology, and artificial intelligence have further deepened the understanding of the mechanisms underlying tumoral growth and their interaction with therapeutic effects, which has paved the way for precision oncology. This review aims to highlight the recent advancements in the understanding and management of skin cancer, and provide an overview of existing and emerging diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic modalities, while highlighting areas that require further research to bridge the existing knowledge gaps.

Synthetic pollutants (SPs) are a significant environmental concern due to their extensive use and persistence in the environment. Various remediation strategies have been explored to address this issue, including photocatalysis, nano-remediation, and bioremediation. Among these, bioremediation stands out as a promising approach, particularly with the use of genetically engineered (GE) microorganisms. This review focuses on the role of GE microorganisms in reducing SPs from environmental systems. GE microorganisms have been modified to enhance their ability to degrade organic and inorganic SPs efficiently. Key genes responsible for contaminant degradation have been identified and modified to improve breakdown rates. Strategies to make engineered bacteria more acceptable are also discussed. Overall, GE microorganisms represent a viable and efficient alternative to native strains for pollutant degradation, highlighting their potential in addressing environmental pollution challenges.