We present the Amsterdam Open MRI Collection (AOMIC): three datasets with multimodal (3 T) MRI data including structural (T1-weighted), diffusion-weighted, and (resting-state and task-based) functional BOLD MRI data, as well as detailed demographics and psychometric variables from a large set of healthy participants (N = 928, N = 226, and N = 216). Notably, task-based fMRI was collected during various robust paradigms (targeting naturalistic vision, emotion perception, working memory, face perception, cognitive conflict and control, and response inhibition) for which extensively annotated event-files are available. For each dataset and data modality, we provide the data in both raw and preprocessed form (both compliant with the Brain Imaging Data Structure), which were subjected to extensive (automated and manual) quality control. All data is publicly available from the OpenNeuro data sharing platform.

Habituation to pain is a fundamental learning process and important adaption. Yet, a comprehensive review of the current state of the field is lacking. Through a systematic search, 63 studies were included. Results address habituation to pain in healthy individuals based on self-report, electroencephalography, or functional magnetic resonance imaging. Our findings indicate a large variety in methods, experimental settings, and contexts, making habituation a ubiquitous phenomenon. Habituation to pain based on self-report studies shows a large influence of expectations, as well as the presence of individual differences. Furthermore, widespread neural effects, with sometimes opposing effects in self-report measures, are noted. Electroencephalography studies showed habituation of the N2-P2 amplitude, whereas functional magnetic resonance imaging studies showed decreasing activity during painful repeated stimulation in several identified brain areas (cingulate cortex and somatosensory cortices). Important considerations for the use of terminology, methodology, statistics, and individual differences are discussed. This review will aid our understanding of habituation to pain in healthy individuals and may lead the way to improving methods and designs for personalized treatment approaches in chronic pain patients.

In this review, the latest insights into habituation to pain in chronic pain are summarized. Using a systematic search, results of studies on the evidence of habituation to (experimental) pain in migraine, chronic low back pain, fibromyalgia, and a variety of chronic pain indications are presented. In migraine, reduced habituation based on self-report and the EEG-based N1 and N2–P2 amplitude is reported, but the presence of contradictory results demands further replication in larger, well-designed studies. Habituation to pain in chronic low back pain seems not to differ from controls, with the exception of EEG measures. In fibromyalgia patients, there is some evidence for reduced habituation of the N2–P2 amplitude. Our analysis shows that the variability between outcomes of studies on habituation to pain is high. As the mechanisms underlying habituation to pain are still not fully understood and likely involve several pathways, it is now too early to conclude that habituation to pain is related to clinical outcomes and can be used as a diagnostic marker. The review ends with a discussion on future directions for research including the use of standard outcome measures to improve comparisons of habituation to pain in patients and controls, as well as a focus on individual differences.

The present study analyzes habituation, sensitization, and nocebo effects based on individual differences in response to painful stimulation. Habituation and sensitization to pain show two opposite patterns that may occur during repeated painful stimulation. Negative expectations such as a nocebo manipulation have been shown to increase pain ratings, but it is unclear to what extent they can influence habituation and sensitization to pain. In this preregistered study, we investigate the effects of repeated painful stimulation across time with pain intensity and unpleasantness ratings, individual differences in the response trajectories, and the impact of a nocebo manipulation in the context of habituation and sensitization response subgroups. We included 60 participants (26 male, 34 female, age 18-60) who received repeated painful electrical stimulation across four runs. Half of the participants received a negative verbal expectation (i.e., nocebo manipulation) after the third run. Participants provided both intensity and unpleasantness ratings after each stimulus. The results demonstrated large individual variability in responses. On the group level, participants showed sensitization to pain which decreased across runs. Individual slopes across and within-runs varied greatly, starting with mostly sensitization and ending with habituation profiles. Habituation of pain intensity and unpleasantness was highly correlated. The nocebo manipulation resulted in a significant nocebo effect, demonstrating a large increase in pain and unpleasantness ratings. In summary, this study showed large individual differences and the impact of a nocebo manipulation on the background of different response profiles. PERSPECTIVE: Repeated painful stimulation resulted in patterns of habituation and sensitization, with large individual variability that differed for across and within-run analyses. Pain intensity and unpleasantness ratings were highly correlated. A nocebo manipulation demonstrated increased intensity and unpleasantness reports, even after habituation and sensitization patterns were established.

The current registered report investigated the effects of source credibility in relation to one’s own worldviews (i.e. supernatural beliefs and belief in science) in a spiritual and scientific context. We asked people to rate the truthfulness of ambiguous auditory statements about the cosmos attributed to a scientist or a spiritual guru and analyzed this using hierarchical Bayesian modeling. In line with our hypotheses, we found that the scientist was seen as more credible than the spiritual guru. The overall credibility of the statements was positively related to supernatural beliefs. These beliefs also interacted with the source of the statement, which was reflected in a tendency for supernatural believers to rate statements from both the scientist and the guru as credible. In contrast, with increasing belief in science, the credibility of the sources diverged with higher ratings for the scientist compared to the guru. The study involved a conceptual replication of previous research and increased the confidence in the robustness of source credibility effects and their interaction with people’s worldviews.

Repeated painful stimulation results in substantial inter-individual differences in habituation and sensitization. The extent to which these responses reflect state versus trait characteristics remains unclear, highlighting the need to assess the reliability of these differences over time. Furthermore, the association between subjective pain ratings and skin conductance responses (SCR) has not been examined in this context. This preregistered study investigated profiles of habituation and sensitization to pain across two sessions using pain ratings and SCR. Participants underwent repeated painful electrical stimulation over two sessions separated by four weeks, receiving 75 stimuli across three runs per session. Pain intensity was rated after each stimulus, and continuous SCRs were recorded. Our results demonstrated moderate test-retest reliability of both pain ratings and SCRs, with within-run measures showing greater consistency than across-run measures. Remarkably, participants displaying sensitization exhibited higher reliability than those with habituation or no-change patterns. High test-retest reliability could suggest a trait-like response with reduced adaptability to repeated stimulation, while a higher variability (and thus low test-retest reliability) indicates state-dependent flexibility and adaptability. Our results suggest that interventions to modulate pain could be targeted at changing such sensitization patterns and promoting habituation. Furthermore, pain ratings showed diverse trajectories of habituation and sensitization, whereas SCRs predominantly habituated. This dissociation between subjective pain perception and autonomic responses challenges the prevailing view that higher pain ratings correspond to elevated SCRs. Together, these results underscore the importance of considering habituation and sensitization dynamics, with subjective and physiological measures providing complementary insights into the multidimensional pain response. PERSPECTIVE: Repeated painful stimulation resulted in patterns of habituation and sensitization, with large individual variability. Test-retest reliability was moderate, with higher consistency for individuals that sensitize. A dissociation between ratings and SCR was demonstrated, with diverse response patterns of ratings and mostly habituation of the SCR.