The provision of advanced specialized content knowledge (SCK) that facilitates in-service teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is one aspect of physical education (PE) worth attention. To some extent, instructional models for training PE teachers on PCK implementation have been studied internationally. Cooperative learning (CL) is rarely reported in China, where direct instruction (DI) is commonly used to assist PE teachers. This study fills in the gaps and investigates whether PE in-service teachers receive proper training during short sessions to improve their PCK. We examined the effect of scaffolding procedures on in-service PE teachers’ PCK, skills, and self-efficacy compared to CL and DI. Hence, the question arose as to whether this support training provided by the instructor would assist in-service teachers in their perception of their efficacy as PE teachers. We deliberately selected 72 in-service PE teachers from twelve middle schools in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China (23, 22, and 27 teachers for CL with scaffolding, CL, and DI conditions, respectively). CL and CLS participants were divided into mixed-sex teams using the CL procedure (Jigsaw) during the training session, while DI participants practiced the same training session in tandem. Pre- and post-tests were used to measure PE in-service teachers’ SCK, skills, and self-efficacy improvements. Additionally, PCK was also examined in the post-test. The mean scores for teaching self-efficacy, performance, and knowledge of practice for all three training conditions (CLS, CL, and DI) were similar at baseline. These parameters significantly differed between the three groups at the pre- and post-test. Post hoc tests revealed that participants in CLS programs improved their performance scores more from pre-test to post-test than participants in DI programs. Among CLS and CL participants, post hoc analyses indicated that their scores improved more significantly than those of DI participants between the pre- and post-tests. The correlation analysis showed positive correlations between post-test performance, PCK, and teaching self-efficacy in each condition. Direct access to teacher intervention information would be the key to developing instructional knowledge. CL training designs should incorporate scaffolding to help in-service teachers develop self-efficacy through physical activities.

Effective physical activity (PA) programs may enhance students’ awareness, competence, and motivation to participate in PA in the future for their health and mental well-being. The most effective way to accomplish this is through in-school and after-school activities. However, certain obstacles (traditional ways) may prevent some students from gaining these benefits. By eliminating these and other barriers, transforming after-school PA programs into in-school PA programs can enhance access to PA services. Despite this, the change in learning context from after-school to in-school may affect student engagement and program effectiveness by altering the interaction between students and teachers. Self-determination theory was employed to explain how the learning context affects motivation and social outcomes in PA programs for primary school students. The study involved 513 students from 12 different schools in Shanxi Province, China, in 2022. They represented 46.24% girls and 53.76% boys, ranging in age from 9 to 12. Teachers conducted PA programs to motivate students to participate in healthy activities. Assessment of student–teacher interactions, psychological needs satisfaction, and motivation was conducted among PA students through questionnaires. Relationships between students and teachers were incorporated into a structural equation model as direct and mediated determinants of motivation for attendance PA programs. There is agreement between the results and the hypothesized model, which predicts higher levels of psychological need satisfaction and higher levels of intrinsic motivation. In addition, the learning context only negatively affects less-self-determined motivations. Results confirm that positive perceptions of teachers by students play a significant role in promoting incentives for PA program participation in more self-determined manners. Furthermore, innovative strategies to reduce the detrimental effects of long-standing institutional structures and procedures should be considered and incorporated into in-school programs that motivate students to participate in these programs.

Researchers have examined the common and specialized content knowledge (CCK/SCK) of physical education (PE) teachers and compared their pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) with student learning outcomes globally. However, little research has been reported in China on the relationship between PCK and student learning in PE settings. The aims of the study were (i) to investigate the influence of teacher content knowledge (CCK/SCK) on student development stages in PE settings and (ii) to examine the impact of teachers’ PCK on students’ performance in Tai Chi techniques (TCTs) after six days of instruction. Two PE teachers were chosen from two urban, public, mid-sized middle schools located in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China. This study involved 332 students from six 5th and six 6th grade classes. The study consisted of 185 5th-grade students (98 boys and 87 girls) and 147 6th-grade students (70 boys and 77 girls). We examined how teacher PCK and student TCT changed after a professional development workshop (PDW). Each PE teacher had two classes randomly assigned to the control or experimental condition groups. This study had three phases. Initially, the control condition was introduced; then, a PDW was provided for the teachers; and finally, the experimental condition was implemented. Teaching behaviors were described using mean values, and t-tests based on the highest TCT scores were conducted to examine the effect of teachers’ PCK on students’ TCT learning. Furthermore, PCK effect sizes were calculated using Cohen’s d. Significant relationships existed between teachers’ PCK, CK, and students’ knowledge, with effect sizes ranging from 1.92 to 6.82. Additionally, improvements in teachers’ PCK were associated with improved TCT performance in students (p < 0.05). Increased knowledge and skills can improve teachers’ PCK behavior, resulting in improved student performance in TCTs. These findings may provide evidence for future recommendations regarding knowledge and skill training programs for physical education teachers.

Virtual reality (VR) has been increasingly adopted as a digital tool in rehabilitation for balance training, coordination improvement, and motor recovery, yet the literature remains dispersed across clinical rehabilitation, exercise-based interventions, and broader motor-related applications. This fragmentation makes it difficult to determine how the field has evolved and where research emphasis has shifted. This study mapped the research landscape and thematic evolution of VR for balance, coordination, and motor rehabilitation using bibliometric analysis and topic modeling. A total of 1258 articles indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection from 2011 to 2025 were analyzed. Only English language articles and reviews relevant to VR-based balance, coordination, or motor rehabilitation research were included, yielding a final dataset of 1258 publications. CiteSpace and VOSviewer were used to examine keyword co-occurrence, clustering patterns, and temporal trends, while Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) was applied to identify latent themes and their temporal dynamics. The field has moved beyond early feasibility testing toward a more differentiated landscape shaped by distinct clinical targets, population groups, and training purposes. Seven recurring themes were identified, including vestibular rehabilitation and immersive training, post-stroke upper-limb rehabilitation, efficacy and adverse-effect assessment, balance and gait training interventions, evidence synthesis and review-based evaluation, elderly exercise and cognitive interventions, and skill-oriented virtual task training with recent expansion toward broader population groups and task-specific applications beyond traditional rehabilitation settings. VR research on balance, coordination, and motor rehabilitation has evolved into a more thematically differentiated field rather than remaining a single rehabilitation-oriented domain. By combining bibliometric mapping with topic modeling, this study clarifies where evidence is concentrated and which thematic directions are gaining visibility, providing a clearer basis for future evidence synthesis and more comparable intervention reporting.