The composition of bacterial communities in freshwater ecosystems is influenced by numerous factors including environmental conditions and biological interactions. In grassland inland closed lakes, factors affecting lake ecosystems are either exogenous or endogenous, contributing to the formation of distinct habitats in the surface and bottom waters of the bacterial communities. However, the extent to which environmental factors selectively shape the bacterial communities in aquatic systems remains unclear. Therefore, we sampled the surface, middle, and bottom waters at 13 sampling points in each layer. High-throughput sequencing techniques were employed to examine the spatial heterogeneity of the bacterial community structure during summer in Hulun Lake, the largest grassland-type lake in Inner Mongolia, China, to determine the microbial community dynamics and symbiosis patterns under different habitat conditions. Our results revealed a decrease in the diversity and heterogeneity of the bacterioplankton community, influenced by changes in the environment from exogenous inputs to endogenous releases. Furthermore, this alteration in community structure was concomitant with enhanced co-occurrences among microorganisms in the bottom water layers. This finding suggests that endogenous release promotes heightened symbiotic interactions, thereby facilitating the development of more complex modular structures. Symbiotic networks in different layers were differentiated by key species, with the ecological clustering modules of these species demonstrating dissimilar environmental preferences. The microbial communities were highly habitat-specific, mimicking responses to total nitrogen (TN) in the surface layer, pH in the middle layer, and chemical oxygen demand (COD) in the bottom layer. Bacterioplankton functions were assessed using Tax4Fun, indicating exogenous inputs and endogenous release increased the relative abundance of genes with nitrogen-fixing and nitrification potential nitrogen metabolism functions in surface and bottom waters, respectively. With Planctomycetota and Proteobacteria phyla as potential key groups for regulating nitrogen metabolic processes, Proteobacteria may facilitate the depletion of nitrate in surface and bottom waters, while the close contact of surface waters with the atmosphere accelerated Planctomycetota-dominated nitrogen fixation into the lake. Our findings contribute to the understanding of vertical microbial diversity and its network patterns in grassland type lakes, underscoring the potential role of environmental factors (exogenous inputs and endogenous releases) in bacterioplankton community formation.

Bacteria play a critical role in the material and energy-cycling processes of lake ecosystems. To understand the characteristics of the bacterial community in Wuliangsuhai Lake in spring, we explored the influence of environmental factors on the community structure of particle-attached bacteria (PA) and free-living bacteria (FL) in the water column of Wuliangsuhai Lake. In this study, we analyzed the bacterial community characteristics of 10 sampling sites in Wuliangsuhai Lake in April 2019 based on the high-throughput sequencing of 16S rRNA genes. Redundancy analysis (RDA) was used to analyze the influence of environmental factors on bacterial communities in lake water. The results showed the following: (1) The relative abundance of bacteria in Wuliangsuhai Lake did not significantly differ among the 10 sampling sites, and the dominant bacterial phyla were Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, and Bacteroidetes. In addition, the community diversity of particle-attached (PA) was higher than that of free-living (FL). (2) The relative abundance of Bacteroidetes in PA (28.83%~54.67%) was significantly higher than that of FL (10.56%~28.44%), the relative abundance of Actinobacteria in the number of PA (20.02%~61.61%) was lower than that of FL (8.18%~16.71%), and the relative abundance of Verrucomicrobia in the PA (0.55%~13.11%) was higher than that of FL (0.05%~6.31%). (3) The redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that transparency, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and ${\mathrm{NH}}_4^{+}$-N were the main factors influencing the dominant bacterial communities in Wuliangsuhai Lake. This study provides the basis for further research on bacterial communities in freshwater lakes and may help local governments in the management of the water resources of Wuliangsuhai Lake.

Groundwater is one of the key sources of water recharge in Hulun Lake. In order to trace the location of the confined aquifer of the deep groundwater that recharges the lake, hydrogeochemical characteristic analysis and hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope sampling and analysis were performed on the lake water, phreatic water and multi-layer cretaceous confined water in the same region of the Hulun Lake basin. The hydraulic relationships between the lake and various aquifers were then revealed through the use of hydrogen radioisotopes. The results show that the lake water, phreatic water and confined water are of the HCO₃−Na type, and the content of stable isotopes (δD, δ¹⁸O) and radioisotopes (δ³H) is in the order of “confined water < phreatic water < lake water”. The main influencing factor of hydrochemical evolution in the phreatic water is the dissolution of feldspar; its age is about 26.66 years, and its renewal rate is nearly 3.75%. The main influencing factor of hydrochemical evolution in the K₁y₁, K₁y₂ and K₁d₁ Cretaceous confined water is evaporite dissolution (i.e., halite, gypsum); their renewal rate is less than 1%, and the discharge condition deteriorates with the increase in the aquifer roof burial depth. Phreatic water in the Jalainur Depression Zone supplies Hulun Lake under the condition of the existence of permafrost cover. The K₁d₂ confined water of the Lower Cretaceous–Damoguaihe Formation Coal Group II, with the deepest roof burial depth (441 m), shows significant differences in hydrochemistry, δD, δ¹⁸O and δ³H from the other K₁y₁, K₁y₂ and K₁d₁ Cretaceous confined waters in the same basin. The renewal rate (nearly 4.32%) of the K₁d₂ confined water is better than that of the phreatic water, and its hydrochemical characteristics are similar to those of the lake water and phreatic water, indicating that the Cuogang Fault and Xishan Fault, caused by crustal faults, resulted in the hydraulic relationship between the K₁d₂ confined water, lake water and phreatic water, resulting in drastic interannual changes in the lake water level. This study of lake–groundwater interactions in cold and arid regions can provide a theoretical basis for lakes’ sustainable development.

The water level of Lake Hulun has changed dramatically in recent years. The interannual interaction between groundwater and lake water is an important factor affecting Lake Hulun’s water level. Vertical recharge between groundwater and the lake is particularly important. Based on an analysis of differences between the hydrogeochemical and water quality characteristics of the spring water, the lake water, and the surrounding groundwater, the source and recharge mechanism of the spring water in the vertical recharge lake are determined. The results show that spring water is exposed at the bottom of Lake Hulun, and there are obvious differences between spring water and lake water in lake ice thickness, ion characteristics, and water quality characteristics. For example, the ice thickness at the spring site is only 6.8% of the average ice thickness of the lake, and there is a triangular area directly above the spring water area that is not covered by ice; the ion contents of the spring water at the lake bottom were less than 50% of those in the lake water; and the NH₄⁺-N content of the spring water at the lake bottom was only 3.0% of the mean content of the lake water. In addition, the total nitrogen (TN), dissolved oxygen (DO), and NH₄⁺-N contents of the spring water at the lake bottom all fall outside the range of contents of the surrounding groundwater. In general, the source of the spring water at the lake bottom is not recharged by the infiltration recharge of the phreatic aquifer but by the vertical recharge of the confined aquifer. Additionally, the Lake Hulun basin may be supplied with confined water through basalt channels while it is frozen. The vertical groundwater recharge mechanism may be that spring water at the lake bottom is first supplied by the deep, confined aquifer flowing through the fault zone to the loose-sediment phreatic aquifer under the lake, and finally interacts with the lake water through the phreatic aquifer.

Lakes in cold zones have common characteristics of long frozen periods and fragile water ecosystems. More and more lakes in cold zones have been experiencing water quality deterioration due to eutrophication with climate change and human activities. Lake Hulun is located in the cold zone of northern China, in which Cyanobacterial blooms frequently occur. The excessive nutrient input with inflowing river water and the change in lake hydrodynamic condition might be the main factors affecting this. To obtain a better understanding of the effects, the input loads of nutrients from the inflowing rivers were analyzed. A field test of freezing concentration combined with microbial activity regulation was carried out at a river–lake confluence. The results showed the following: (1) Lake Hulun receives a large amount of nitrogen and phosphorus pollutants from river runoff every year, and the water quality of these river is inferior Grade V, which greatly increases the difficulty in ecological purification of cold zone lakes. (2) The microbial activity control technology has a high purification rate for water during the unfrozen period. The order of purification rates for each hydrochemical index was TP > TN > COD > NH₄⁺-N, and the purification rates of TN and COD were between 35% and 36%. Compared with the water before purification, the water quality grade improved from Grade V to Grade III. (3) The composite technology of freezing concentration–microbial activity regulation has a general water purification rate during the frozen period. Under the low-temperature condition, the TN and COD nutrient fluxes in the water were reduced by 9.38% and 9.36%, respectively. After purification, the water quality grade of the ice body was above Grade II, and the water under the ice layer was above Grade IV, which was one grade higher than the water quality grade of the original lake water. This water treatment and purification process is a green, low-energy consumption, and low-cost technology. This study can provide reference for the integration and demonstration of lake water ecological governance and water resources security technology in cold and arid regions. It is beneficial to the sustainable development of the lake.