Tipping bucket rain gauges (TBRs) continue to be one of the most widely used pieces of equipment for rainfall monitoring; they are frequently used for the calibration, validation, and downscaling of radar and remote sensing data, due to their major advantages—low cost, simplicity and low-energy consumption. Thus, many works have focused and continue to focus on their main disadvantage—measurement biases (mainly in wind and mechanical underestimations). However, despite arduous scientific effort, calibration methodologies are not frequently implemented by monitoring networks’ operators or data users, propagating bias in databases and in the different applications of such data, causing uncertainty in the modeling, management, and forecasting in hydrological research, mainly due to a lack of knowledge. Within this context, this work presents a review of the scientific advances in TBR measurement uncertainties, calibration, and error reduction strategies from a hydrological point of view, by describing different rainfall monitoring techniques, summarizing TBR measurement uncertainties, focusing on calibration and error reduction strategies, discussing the state of the art and providing future perspectives of the technology.

This study evaluates the integration of reused PV modules within an agrivoltaic system designed for sustainable horticultural production, focusing on energy performance and agricultural outcomes. The experimental setup included both new and partially repaired PV modules, installed over tomato crops under real operating conditions. The results demonstrate that reused PV modules exhibit a strong and consistent energy performance, achieving correlations between irradiance and energy output comparable to new panels. Despite slightly lower performance ratios, reused modules maintained stable efficiency and operational viability, emphasizing their potential for sustainable applications. On the agricultural side, shading provided by PV panels protects the crop yield. This study highlights the environmental and economic advantages of incorporating reused PV modules into agrivoltaic systems, including reductions in raw material extraction, electronic waste generation, and overall environmental impact. By leveraging the circular economy principles, agrivoltaics with reused PV modules provide a sustainable pathway to balance energy production and food security while optimizing land use efficiency. These findings establish the potential of agrivoltaics as a key technology in advancing the sustainable energy transition.

Tipping bucket rain gauges (TBRs) have been, and apparently will continue to be one of the most widely used pieces of equipment for rainfall monitoring, being frequently used for the calibration, validation and downscaling of radar and remote sensing data, due to their major advantages–low cost, simplicity, and low energy consumption. Thus, many works have focused and continue to focus on their main disadvantage–measurement biases (mainly in wind and mechanical underestimations). However, despite arduous scientific effort, calibration methodologies are not frequently implemented by monitoring networks operators or data users, propagating bias in databases and in the different applications of such data, causing uncertainty in the modeling, management, and forecasting in hydrological research, mainly due to a lack of knowledge. Within this context, this work presents a review of the scientific advances in TBR measurement uncertainties, calibration, and error reduction strategies from a hydrological point of view, by describing different rainfall monitoring techniques in Section 2, summarizing TBR measurement uncertainties in Section 3, focusing on calibration, and error reduction strategies in Section 4, a discussion and perspectives in Section 5, and conclusions in Section 6, providing an overview of the of the state of the art and future perspectives of the technology.

Events-based hydrology phenomena are affected by extreme spatio-temporal variability. Precipitation is the first source of variability. Storms can start at different times across a catchment and can evolve differently over time thus creating a complex frame for events-based hydrological modelling. Both are affected by a random character. On many occasions a scarce number of weather stations are available within the catchments so researchers and hydrologists are forced to use interpolation methods for estimating precipitation. Classical interpolation methods base on deterministic algorithms not properly accounting for the random character of storm. In this work we analyse the spatial variability of the recorded storms in a set of urban weather stations in Madrid delivering some criteria for dealing with spatio-temporal variability of storms for modelling events-based hydrological processes.

SUDS were initially conceived for mimicking hydrological original conditions of urban catchments. SUDS have been strongly promoted by public and private decision-makers around the world. Public perception has been previously addressed by different studies many studies in a disconnected manner and at different planes. Similarly, the social benefits have also been studied from different perspectives mostly enhancing local perspectives not clearly comparable between territories. In this work we present the initial literature review on SUDS social aspects and public perception. We find from the previous studies that a general method for both making society aware of SUDS aims and roles and providing designers and planners with public perception is clearly lacking. We seek to highlight the gaps to be filled with further analysis and studies so public society can be completely engaged in SUDS design and operation.