Particle therapy of moving targets is still a great challenge. The motion of organs situated in the thorax and abdomen strongly affects the precision of proton and carbon ion radiotherapy. The motion is responsible not only for the dislocation of the tumour but also the alterations in the internal density along the beam path, which influence the range of particle beams. Furthermore, in case of pencil beam scanning there is an interference between the target movement and dynamic beam delivery. This review presents the strategies for tumour motion monitoring and moving targets irradiation in the context of hadron therapy. Methods enabling the direct determination of tumour position (fluoroscopic imaging of implanted radio-opaque fiducial markers, electromagnetic detection of inserted transponders and ultrasonic tumour localization systems) are presented. Attention is also drawn to the techniques, which use external surrogate motion for an indirect estimation of target displacement during irradiation. The ro...

Electron paramagnetic resonance investigations of paramagnetic centers in whole human blood were carried out at 170 K using X-band EPR spectrometer. The study included a group of patients and healthy volunteers. The EPR signals from high spin Fe ³⁺ ions in transferrin (g = 4.2) and Cu ²⁺ ions in ceruloplasmin (g = 2.05) are characteristic of each frozen blood sample. An overview of all recorded spectra revealed in several cases additional lines derived from high spin Fe ³⁺ ions in methemoglobin (g = 5.8 - 6), free radicals (g = 2.002 - 2.005) and various low spin ferriheme complexes (g = 2.21 - 2.91). The lines from cytochromes (g = 3.03 and 3.27) were observed only twice. The EPR measurements have not confirmed the correlation between the occurrence of a particular type of low-spin iron complex and a specific disease entity. Moreover, the presence of EPR lines from trivalent iron also did not differentiate patients from healthy volunteers.

Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy is gaining increasing recognition in research on various nanostructures. In the case of iron oxide nanoparticles, EPR measurements offer the possibility of determining the magnetic phase and the exact type (Fe₃O₄, γ-Fe₂O₃, α-Fe₂O₃, or a combination) of the core material. Furthermore, the EPR technique enables the study of relaxation processes, estimation of the effective and surface anisotropy constants, and assessment of the influence of sample aging on the magnetic properties of nanoparticles. The scope of the information obtained can be further expanded by utilizing spin labeling of polymer-coated nanoparticles. By analyzing the signals from the attached nitroxide, one can determine certain properties of the coating and its interactions with the environment (e.g., body fluids, cells, tissues) and also perform imaging of nanoparticles in various media. In some cases, EPR can help monitor the encapsulation of active substances and their release processes. Unfortunately, despite the enormous potential, not all of the possibilities offered by EPR are routinely used in nanoscience. Therefore, the present article aims not only to present the current applications and existing trends but also to indicate directions for future EPR research, constituting a road map.

Polymeric micelles and capsules are promising candidates for carriers of antineoplastic medications. Biodegradability and broadly defined biocompatibility are the key features that should always characterize polymers intended for medical applications. A well-designed delivery system ought to ensure the safe transport of chemotherapeutic agents to the target area and thus minimize systemic exposure to these drugs, limiting their toxic effect, preferably to the cancer cells. Polymeric micelles are often tailored for encapsulation of water-insoluble drugs. Micellar structures are usually fabricated as a result of self-assembly of various amphiphilic block copolymers in aqueous environment. More advanced methods are used to form capsules with a liquid core and a shell made of fused polymer nanoor microparticles. Such a coating can have homogeneous or heterogeneous composition. Janus and patchy capsules are usually characterized by more useful and advanced properties. Although some polymeric carriers are designed for a sustained release of the cargo, more sophisticated approaches involve payload liberation on demand under the influence of selected chemical or physical stimuli. The variety of available polymers and a wide range of possibilities of forming copolymers from different kind of monomers make polymeric materials ideal for the production of drug delivery systems with the desired properties. The aim of the present review is to sum up selected aspects of the use of polymeric micelles as carriers of cytostatic drugs, taking into account clinical applications. The additional objective is to show the studies on creating alternative systems based on stimuli-responsive capsules with shells made of polymeric particles.