This paper reviews e-waste practices and aggregates the toxicity levels of organic compounds in different environmental media and human body fluids resulting from e-waste recycling activities in Ghana. Literature was searched from three academic databases (Science Direct, SpringerLink and PUBMED). Research articles published in English from 2010 to 2018 were selected in addition to reports of country studies. In all, 13 documents passed the inclusion criteria. E-waste recycling practices in Ghana were found to be mainly rudimentary. The major organic contaminants found in soils, air, sediments, food and body fluids of people exposed to e-waste recycling activities are PAHs, PCBs, Dioxin-like PCBs, PCDD/Fs, PBDD/Fs and PBDEs. The concentration of PCBs in the blood of e-waste workers and breast milk of nursing mothers at the recycling areas were respectively 0.082 µg/g (blood) and 3.64 ng/g lipid wt (breast milk). PAH was 3.94 µg/g creatinine in the urine of e-waste workers and 4,822 ng/g (median) in the soils at open burning areas. PCDD/F was 12.1 pg/g lipid base WHO₂₀₀₅-TEQ per year in the blood of e-waste workers and 988 pg TEQ/g in sediments of a shallow lagoon near the largest e-waste recycling site. Further studies are required to establish the levels of organic contaminants in air, water and foodstuffs at e-waste recycling sites and body burdens of children living or illegally working at e-waste recycling sites.

The ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine offers a promising route to safely managed sanitation to many households in developing countries. However, some technical guidelines must be followed in order to realise the technology's advantage of odour and fly nuisance control. This study sought to audit private VIP latrines in selected regions of Ghana to assess their compliance to conventional technical guidelines and to understand the major factors that influence the latrine designs. An inspection checklist was developed to assess 296 private VIP latrines in the Central, Ashanti and Northern Regions of Ghana while semi-structured interviews were conducted among the latrine owners to enquire the factors that influenced the designs of their latrines. The results show that provision of a window in the superstructure (86 %), and the avoidance of an insect screen in the window(s) (77 %) were the most complied guidelines. The use of 150 mm diameter vent pipe was the least satisfied guideline (5 %). On the average, a latrine satisfied about half (3.6) of the technical guidelines that were assessed. The decision or advice of local artisans is the most influential factor in the design of the latrines. Cost was the least mentioned factor cited by the latrine owners. There is the need to establish information desks at the various Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) to guide prospective owners on the proper design and construction of the VIP latrine. In addition, toilet construction should be incorporated in the curriculum for the basic training of building and construction students in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions in Ghana. Further research is required to ascertain the basis of the decisions of local artisans and the potential impact of the use of accessories that are ‘borrowed’ from the WC toilet on odour and fly control in the latrine.

Sharing facilities with other households offers the most realistic opportunity for access to sanitation for many households in low-income settings. However, questions remain about the safety of shared toilets, including those shared at the household level. This study sought to compare the usage and microbial safety of household-level shared and unshared toilets in a Ghanaian rural district to investigate any association between their microbial safety and sharing status. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data on the user characteristics of the sampled toilets, while common contact surfaces (door handles and toilet seats) were assessed for faecal contamination following standard swab sampling and analytical protocols. The results of the study indicate that sharing toilets affords about 90% more household-level access to sanitation as compared to single-household toilets. Toilet sharing mostly occurred between two households, with a maximum user population of 14 per toilet. Generally, there was a high prevalence of faecal contamination on the door handles and seats of both shared and unshared toilets, but this had no association with the sharing status of the toilets. The median concentration of Escherichia coli (E. coli) on the door handles and seats of shared toilets was 34.3 × 10⁵ and 103.2 × 10⁵ CFU/mL, respectively, as compared to 54.7 × 10⁵ and 125.0 × 10⁵ CFU/mL, respectively, on unshared toilets. In conclusion, the sharing of toilets at the household level nearly doubles access to sanitation at home without necessarily exposing the users to a higher risk of faecal–oral disease transmission.

This study looked at the Assin Fosu Small Town Water Supply System in Ghana to verify whether the operation of the scheme is based on a comprehensive water safety plan and how the practice of water safety planning affects the quality of water delivered to the consumers. The study employed document reviews, structured observations, interviews and laboratory analysis of water samples. System design data files and an Operation and Management Contract document were reviewed along with in-depth interviews with key stakeholders of the water supply system. Structured observations were made to assess the management practices of the system managers. Three rounds of sampling of water were done at monthly intervals from 10 randomly selected public standpipes, 3 boreholes and 2 filtration units. Samples were analysed to assess their bacteriological safety and aesthetic (physical) quality (turbidity and colour). Upon detection of bacteriological contamination, the adequacy of disinfection was assessed by measuring the levels of residual chlorine. It was found that the recommended schedule for some key documented water quality control and monitoring activities were not complied with. Consequently, the quality of water delivered to consumers at several public standpipes failed to meet the WHO guidelines for drinking water. Forty percent (40%) of all samples were found with faecal contamination, with 60% and 50% exceeding the WHO’s guideline levels for turbidity and colour respectively. It is recommended that the Community Water and Sanitation Agency in Ghana intensifies on-going efforts at ensuring that small-scale water supply systems in the country are managed with comprehensive water safety plans to prevent microbial contamination which could pose significant health risks to the consumers.

Sharing facilities with other households offers the most realistic opportunity for access to sanitation to many households in low-income settings. However, questions remain about the safety of shared toilets, including those shared at the household level. This study sought to compare the usage and microbial safety of household-level shared and unshared toilets in a Ghanaian rural district to investigate any association between their microbial safety and sharing status. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data on the user characteristics of the sampled toilets, while common contact surfaces (door handles and toilet seats) were assessed for faecal contamination following standard swab sampling and analytical protocols. The results of the study indicate that sharing toilets affords about 90% more household-level access to sanitation as compared to single-household toilets. Toilet sharing mostly occurred between two households, with a maximum user population of 14 per toilet. Generally, there was a high prevalence of faecal contamination of the door handles and seats of both shared and unshared toilets, but this had no association with the sharing status of the toilets. The median concentration of E. coli on door handles and seats of shared toilets were 34.3 x 105 and 103.2 x 105 CFU/ml respectively as compared to 54.7 x 105 and 125.0 x 105 CFU/ml respectively on unshared toilets. In conclusion, the sharing of toilets at the household level nearly doubles access to sanitation at home without necessarily exposing the users to a higher risk of faecal-oral disease transmission.

The ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine is a cheaper and convenient alternative to water-borne sanitation for many households in developing countries. To mimic the water closet toilet, some users have introduced prefabricated ceramic seats with covers, which are known to disrupt the odour control mechanism of the latrine. The objective of this study was to quantitatively establish the extent to which the use of seats with covers affects the ventilation rate in the VIP latrine and to explore whether an innovative seat with a partially-screened cover could significantly minimise the effect of seat covering. The ventilation rates in experimental latrines with various modifications of superstructure and user interface designs were monitored with an air flow meter. The study revealed that seat covering could lead to >87% reduction in the ventilation rate and allow the generation of <50% of the minimum ventilation rate required to achieve odour-free conditions in an otherwise standard VIP latrine. The study also established that lining part of the seat cover with an insect screen could increase the ventilation rate by more than three times and could attain the minimum ventilation rate when combined with the conventionally recommended superstructure design.