The bacterium Coxiella burnetii can cause the disease Q-fever in a wide range of animal hosts. Ruminants, including sheep, are thought to play a pivotal role in the transmission of C. burnetii to humans; however, the only existing livestock vaccine, namely, Coxevac^® (Ceva Animal Health Ltd., Libourne, France), a killed bacterin vaccine based on phase I C. burnetii strain Nine-Mile, is only approved for use in goats and cattle. In this study, a pregnant ewe challenge model was used to determine the protective effects of Coxevac^® and an experimental bacterin vaccine based on phase II C. burnetii against C. burnetii challenge. Prior to mating, ewes (n = 20 per group) were vaccinated subcutaneously with either Coxevac^®, the phase II vaccine, or were unvaccinated. A subset of pregnant ewes (n = 6) from each group was then challenged 151 days later (~100 days of gestation) with 10⁶ infectious mouse doses of C. burnetii, Nine-Mile strain RSA493. Both vaccines provided protection against C. burnetii challenge as measured by reductions in bacterial shedding in faeces, milk and vaginal mucus, and reduced abnormal pregnancies, compared to unvaccinated controls. This work highlights that the phase I vaccine Coxevac^® can protect ewes against C. burnetii infection. Furthermore, the phase II vaccine provided comparable levels of protection and may offer a safer and cost-effective alternative to the currently licensed vaccine.

Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) infections associated with wildlife are increasing globally, highlighting many ‘spillover’ species as important reservoirs for these zoonotic pathogens. A human outbreak of STEC serogroup O157 in 2015 in Scotland, associated with the consumption of venison meat products, highlighted several knowledge gaps, including the prevalence of STEC O157 in Scottish wild deer and the potential risk to humans from wild deer isolates. In this study, we undertook a nationwide survey of wild deer in Scotland and determined that the prevalence of STEC O157 in wild deer is low 0.28% (95% confidence interval = 0.06–0.80). Despite the low prevalence of STEC O157 in Scottish wild deer, identified isolates were present in deer faeces at high levels (>10⁴ colony forming units/g faeces) and had high human pathogenic potential based on whole genome sequencing and virulence gene profiling. A retrospective epidemiological investigation also identified one wild deer isolate from this study as a possible source of a Scottish human outbreak in 2017. These results emphasise the importance of food hygiene practices during the processing of wild deer carcasses for human consumption.