China is, and in the coming decades should continue to be, the largest producer and user of coal in the world. The high volume of coal usage in China has focused attention not only on the toxic trace elements that may be released from coal combustion but also on the valuable elements that may occur in the coal and associated ash. Valuable elements in several coals (or coal ashes) and some coal-bearing strata in China (e.g. Ge, Ga, U, rare earth elements and Y, Nb, Zr, Se, V, Re, Au, and Ag, as well as the base metal Al) occur at concentrations comparable to or even higher than those in conventional economic deposits. Several factors are responsible for these elevated concentrations: (1) injection of exfiltrational solutions during peat accumulation or as part of later epigenetic activity; (2) injection of infiltrational epigenetic solutions; (3) introduction of syngenetic alkali volcanic ashes into the peat-forming environment or into associated non-coal-forming terrestrial environments; (4) input of terrigenous materials into the coal-forming environment; (5) leaching of non-coal partings by groundwater/hydrothermal solutions; and (6) mixed processes involving both hydrothermal solutions and volcanic ash. The valuable elements in Chinese coals may be associated with either the organic matter or mineral matter, or have a mixed organic- and inorganic-affinity. For example, the Ge and U in coal-hosted ore deposits dominantly occur in the organic matter, with only traces of U-bearing minerals being present; gallium mainly occurs in boehmite and kaolinite, and to a lesser extent, in the organic matter. Rare earth elements and Y occur as carbonate-minerals (e.g. florencite, parisite), phosphate-minerals (e.g. rhabdophane, silico-rhabdophane, and xenotime), and in part are associated with the organic matter. Some metals (e.g. Ge, Al, Ga) have been successfully extracted at an industrial scale from Chinese coals, and others have significant potential for such extraction. Major challenges remaining for coal scientists include the development of economic extraction methods from coal ash, and the control of toxic elements released during the metal extraction process to protect human health and to avoid environmental pollution.

Stone coal is defined as a combustible, low-heat value, high-rank black shale of early Paleozoic (in a few cases, Permian) age, widely distributed in southern China. Attention has been focused on stone coals because (1) they can be used as fuel energy (for power plants and daily use in some villages) mainly in southern China; (2) they are enriched in critical elements and are currently industrially (economic extraction of V) and agriculturally (such as Se) utilized or have such a great potential (e.g. Au, platinum group elements, Mo, and Ni); (3) they are the sources for some toxic elements that have caused environmental pollution (e.g. SO₂ emission during their combustion) and endemic diseases such as selenoisis and fluorosis; and (4) they can provide useful information for geological events and regional geological setting (e.g. hydrothermal activities). This article reviews stone coal’s definition; occurrence and distribution; petrologic properties, mineralogy, and geochemistry; adverse impacts on environment and human health; and by-products of critical elements as well as major challenges remaining from point of view of determining element enrichment mechanisms, utilization of critical elements, and control of toxic elements released during stone coal utilization.