We review research on the structure and functions of emotions that has benefitted from a serious consideration of both discrete and dimensional perspectives on emotion. To illustrate this point, we review research that demonstrates: (1) how affective valence within discrete emotions differs as a function of individuals and situations, and how these differences relate to various functions; (2) that anger (and other emotional states) should be considered as a discrete emotion but there are dimensions around and within anger; (3) that similarities exist between approach-related positive and negative discrete emotions and they have unique motivational functions; (4) that discrete emotions and broad dimensions of emotions both have unique functions; and (5) evidence that a “new” discrete emotion with discrete functions exists within a broader emotion family. We hope that this consideration of both discrete and dimensional perspectives on emotion will assist in understanding the functions of emotions.

Anger and aggression are causes of significant suffering. Psychological methods to prevent and reduce anger and aggression have been partially successful; however, there is room for novel interventions, such as those informed by neuroscience. One such intervention is anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), which involves administering a weak electrical current to the brain to stimulate cortical activity. In this meta‐analysis, we synthesized 93 effect sizes from 25 sham‐controlled experiments. We predicted that tDCS would reduce anger and aggression. The overall results showed no effect of tDCS on anger and aggression (Hedges' g = −0.03, CI _95% = −0.30, 0.24). Separate meta‐analyses of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex showed no effects of tDCS. The meta‐analysis was limited by low power in the source articles (average power = 0.33); No study reached the sufficient sample size to detect a medium effect. Thus, there is room for more well‐powered research on the topic to determine whether tDCS may reduce aggression.

Background: How the biophysics of electrical conductivity measures relate to brain activity is poorly understood. The sedative, ethanol, reduces metabolic activity but its impact on brain electrical conductivity is unknown.Purpose: To investigate whether ethanol reduces brain electrical tissue conductivity.Study Type: Prospective.Subjects: Fifty‐two healthy volunteers (aged 18–37 years, 22 females, 30 males).Field Strength/Sequence: 3 T, T1‐weighted, multi‐shot, turbo‐field echo (TFE); 3D balanced fast‐field echo (bFFE).Assessment: Brain gray and white matter tissue conductivity measured with phase‐based magnetic resonance electrical properties tomography (MREPT) compared before and 20 minutes after ethanol consumption (0.7 g/kg body weight). Differential conductivity whole brain maps were generated for three subgroups: those with strong ( > 0.1 S/m; N = 33), weak (0.02 S/m ≤ ≤ 0.1 S/m; N = 9) conductivity decrease, and no significant response ( < 0.02 S/m, N = 10). Maps were compared in the strong response group where breath alcohol rose between scans, vs. those where it fell.Statistical Tests: Average breath alcohol levels were compared to the differential conductivity maps using linear regression. T‐maps were generated (threshold P < 0.05 and P < 0.001; minimum cluster 48 mm³). Differential conductivity maps were compared with ANOVA.Results: Whole‐group analysis showed decreased conductivity that did not survive statistical thresholding. Strong responders (N = 33) showed a consistent pattern of significantly decreased conductivity ( > 0.1 S/m) in frontal/occipital and cerebellar white matter. The weak response group (N = 9) showed a similar pattern of conductivity decrease (0.02 S/m ≤ ≤ 0.1 S/m). There was no significant relationship with breath alcohol levels, alcohol use, age, ethnicity, or sex. The strong responders' regional response was different between ascending (N = 12) or descending (N = 20) alcohol during the scan.Data Conclusion: Ethanol reduces brain tissue conductivity in a participant‐dependent and spatially dependent fashion.Evidence Level: 1Technical Efficacy: Stage 2

Alcohol-related aggression is a widely observed phenomenon that has detrimental effects on both individuals and society, putatively caused by dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) plays a critical role in representing the reward value of future actions. Emerging research has suggested that transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the vmPFC can reduce aggression. However, no study has examined whether tDCS can mitigate intoxicated aggression. In this study, 153 healthy participants consumed alcohol or not and completed the anger-infused Ultimatum Game with simultaneous double-blind anodal tDCS or sham over the bilateral vmPFC. For participants in the anodal tDCS condition, intoxicated participants were less aggressive than sober participants when insulted. However, among sober participants, anodal tDCS increased aggression. For participants in the alcohol condition, we observed no differences in aggression between the anodal tDCS and the sham tDCS conditions. These findings provide mixed support for tDCS as a means to attenuate intoxicated aggression.

Background: Maximizing the value of introductory courses that both support student wellbeing and develop scientific thinking is increasingly important in the post-COVID-19 context. Objective: In an introductory psychology course framed by psychological literacy, the aim was to explicitly support the satisfaction of students’ academically related psychological needs (thus supporting well-being) in the context of acquiring foundational research skills. Method: Innovative teaching and assessment strategies for scaffolded collaborative research skill acquisition are described. Students were invited to complete an evaluation survey. Results: The hypothesis that students would indicate that the course contributed to (a) satisfaction of their psychological needs, (b) intrinsic motivation, (c) well-being, and (d) development of psychological literacy was supported. The hypothesis that psychological need satisfaction would predict both intrinsic motivation and well-being was supported. The hypothesis that students would indicate that the course contributed to increased competence in research and experimental design was supported. Conclusion: Explicitly framing the pedagogical approach in terms of psychological literacy and the satisfaction of psychological needs, and scaffolding research skill development, is a promising approach in courses emphasizing the value of psychological science. Teaching implications: Teachers can readily adapt this approach to their own context, making use of our open course materials.