Chondroitin sulfate (CS) is a natural macromolecule polysaccharide that is extensively distributed in a wide variety of organisms. CS is of great interest to researchers due to its many in vitro and in vivo functions. CS production derives from a diverse number of sources, including but not limited to extraction from various animals or fish, bio-synthesis, and fermentation, and its purity and homogeneity can vary greatly. The structural diversity of CS with respect to sulfation and saccharide content endows this molecule with distinct complexity, allowing for functional modification. These multiple functions contribute to the application of CS in medicines, biomaterials, and functional foods. In this article, we discuss the preparation of CS from different sources, the structure of various forms of CS, and its binding to other relevant molecules. Moreover, for the creation of this article, the functions and applications of CS were reviewed, with an emphasis on drug discovery, hydrogel formation, delivery systems, and food supplements. We conclude that analyzing some perspectives on structural modifications and preparation methods could potentially influence future applications of CS in medical and biomaterial research.

In this study, a hydrogel was developed based on a chondroitin sulfate–iron complex (CSFe) incorporated into a sodium alginate matrix. The CSFe complex was first prepared through the interaction of chondroitin sulfate (CS) with Fe³⁺ ions, achieving an iron content of 2.06%. Structural characterization confirmed that Fe³⁺ coordinated with the carboxyl, sulfate, and N-acetyl groups of CS, resulting in increased molecular weight and altered physicochemical properties. The CSFe complex exhibited significant antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), and was further incorporated into a sodium alginate matrix to form an injectable hydrogel with favorable physicochemical properties such as spreadability, shear-thinning behavior, and a compact porous microstructure. In a mouse model of S. aureus-infected wounds, the CSFe hydrogel significantly accelerated wound closure, reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6), and increased the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, indicating potent anti-infective and immunomodulatory functions. Overall, this work presents a multifunctional CSFe-incorporated hydrogel system that integrates antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and tissue-regenerative properties, offering a promising strategy for infected wound healing and highlighting the potential of trivalent iron–polysaccharide coordination complexes in the development of advanced biomedical materials.

The escalating prevalence of bacterial infections has intensified the search for innovative antimicrobial strategies, particularly for infected wound management. Chondroitin sulfate (CS), a naturally occurring glycosaminoglycan with established biocompatibility, presents an attractive scaffold for developing metal ion-functionalized biomaterials. This study reports the fabrication of chondroitin sulfate–copper complex (CSCu) and chondroitin sulfate–zinc complex (CSZn) through an ion exchange method, wherein Cu²⁺ and Zn²⁺ ions bind to the groups of carboxylate, sulfate, or N-acetyl from the CS backbone. The resulting complexes exhibited copper or zinc loading capacities of about 6.6% and demonstrated potent antibacterial activity against E. coli and S. aureus. The integration of CSCu or CSZn with sodium alginate yielded a hydrogel system with a higher apparent viscosity, possessing injectability and spreadability on the skin surface and a porous three-dimensional internal structure conducive to wound healing applications. In a murine model of S. aureus-infected full-thickness wounds, topical application of CSCu and CSZn hydrogels substantially accelerated wound closure, achieving 97.46% and 98.11% healing, respectively, by day 10. Additionally, treatment with CSCu or CSZn hydrogels significantly attenuated systemic inflammatory responses, as reflected in lowered serum TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 alongside increased IL-10. Histological evaluation confirmed enhanced re-epithelialization and stratum spinosum formation in treated wounds. These findings establish CSCu and CSZn as a promising bioactive agent for addressing bacterial wound infections through a dual mechanism of direct antibacterial action and immunomodulatory effects, offering a valuable alternative to conventional antibiotic therapies.

In this research, the anti-hyperlipidemic effects of hawthorn polysaccharides in experimental mice fed a high-fat diet were thoroughly investigated. The findings indicated that the body and organ weights of the high-fat group (HC) mice increased significantly, fat accumulation was evident, and serum indicators showed elevated lipid levels. After 8 weeks of the intragastric administration of hawthorn polysaccharides, the data showed that the body weight of the hawthorn polysaccharide (HA) group was notably lower than that of the HC group and close to that of the NC group. In addition, the hawthorn polysaccharide intervention improved the symptoms of the mice. In particular, the hawthorn polysaccharide intervention significantly increased HDL-C levels and decreased LDL-C levels in the HA group mice. Furthermore, gut microbiota analysis demonstrated that a high-fat diet altered its structure. The intervention with hawthorn polysaccharides modulated the intestinal flora structure, lowered the F/B ratio, and increased the abundance of beneficial bacterial strains associated with lower blood lipid levels.

The prevalence of obesity among elderly women is increasing, particularly in postmenopausal populations. This exploratory study investigated the associations between chondroitin sulfate (CS) supplementation and body weight control in ovariectomized (OVX) rats, a preclinical model for postmenopausal physiology. CS supplementation was associated with significantly reduced body weight gain and preserved adipocyte morphology. CS-treated OVX rats exhibited decreased gut microbiota diversity, with reduced abundance of Photobacterium and Rhodococcus and increased abundance of Turicibacter. Metabolomic analysis revealed elevated levels of carbohydrates, fatty acids, and their conjugates, some of which correlated with body weight parameters. Bioinformatic analysis identified enriched KEGG pathways including tyrosine metabolism, glucosinolate biosynthesis and thiamine metabolism. Collectively, these findings provide preliminary correlational evidence in an OVX rat model supporting the potential of CS as a food supplement for body weight control, although causal relationships and clinical applicability warrant further investigation in postmenopausal populations.