Drawing is an invaluable means of expression for children, which has always appealed to psychologists for its direct communicative features, as well as for the possibility of transcending intercultural differences. This volume allows students and researchers to learn a specific methodology of pictorial data analysis. The characteristics of children's drawings of interpersonal relationship, such as friends, siblings, child-parent, are measured by means of six scales: Cohesion, Distancing, Similarity, Value, Emotions and Conflict, which can be used jointly or individually. The method has proven to be highly useful in psychological research on the development of interpersonal relationships.

This study was aimed at verifying if children introduce emotional expressions in their drawings of human faces, and if a preferential expression exists; we also wanted to verify if children’s pictorial choices change with increasing age. To this end we examined the human figure drawings made by 160 boys and 160 girls, equally divided in 4 age groups: 6–7; 8–9; 10–11; 12–13 years; mean ages (SD in parentheses) were: 83,30 (6,54); 106,14 (7,16) 130,49 (8,26); 155,40 (6,66). Drawings were collected with the Draw-a-Man test instructions, i.e. without mentioning an emotional characterization. In the light of data from previous studies of emotion drawing on request, and the literature about preferred emotional expressions, we expected that an emotion would be portrayed even by the younger participants, and that the preferred emotion would be happiness. We also expected that with the improving ability to keep into account both mouth and eyes appearance, other expressions would be found besides the smiling face. Data were submitted to non-parametric tests to compare the frequencies of expressions (absolute and by age) and the frequencies of visual cues (absolute and by age and expressions). The results confirmed that only a small number of faces were expressionless, and that the most frequent emotion was happiness. However, with increasing age this representation gave way to a variety of basic emotions (sadness, fear, anger, surprise), whose representation may depend from the ability to modify the shapes of both eyes and mouth and changing communicative aims of the child.

Ideas about romantic relationships have been studied in adolescents. This article extends this study to younger children. We asked two hundred seventy 5- to 11-year-olds to draw “two children who have a romance” and “two children who are friends,” and we subsequently interviewed each participant about the characters’ relationships. The drawings were coded with three scales of Pictorial Assessment of Interpersonal Relationships (PAIR), an instrument by Bombi, Pinto, and Cannoni. Interviews were categorized by the characters’ age and identity and by the distinguishing features of romance and friendship: location, intimacy, activity, personal characteristics, and emotions. Scale scores were compared with variance analyses, whereas the categories frequencies were submitted to chi-square. Results showed that all participants were able to distinguish the two relationships, even if the descriptions increased in detail with age. Girls provided more information than boys about romance, but were less inclined to talk about their own romantic experiences.

The present study investigated the effects of leisure activities and online peer relationships on the development of psychological difficulties in adolescents during the COVID-19 lockdown in Italy. Data were collected in April and May 2020. The parents of 1,020 Italian adolescents aged 14–18 (51.9% girls) completed questionnaires about the experiences and behaviors of their children before and during the lockdown. A moderation regression analysis was applied to test the research hypotheses. The findings indicated that adolescents who were more active in sports and social activities prior to the COVID-19 pandemic showed greater psychological distress during the lockdown. Moreover, increased reading, game playing, and exercise during the lockdown effectively compensated for the interruption of pre-pandemic sports and social activities, and represented a protective factor for adolescents’ mental health. Finally, increased online contact with peers during the lockdown protected against the development of psychological difficulties, regardless of adolescents’ engagement in sports and social activities prior to the pandemic. The findings provide new and useful information about the role of leisure activities and online contact with peers in protecting against psychological difficulties in adolescents, especially during situations of isolation and social distancing, as in the COVID-19 national lockdown.

The present study investigated protective and risk factors for psychological difficulties in children and adolescents during the COVID-19 lockdown. Specifically, the role of increased use of digital devices (DDs) for recreational purposes and the role of free time spent with parents were explored. Furthermore, the possible mediating effect of increased use of DDs in the relationship between free time spent with parents and psychological difficulties was tested. Participants were 4412 Italian children and adolescents, divided into two groups: children aged 6–10 years (n = 2248) and adolescents aged 11–18 years (n = 2164). Data were collected in Italy during the national lockdown and questionnaires were completed online by parents, who reported on their children’s habits. The daily use of DDs increased significantly during the lockdown compared to the previous period, in both children and adolescents. Additionally, psychological difficulties increased in both children and adolescents during the lockdown, with a more severe impairment for children. Increased use of DDs during the lockdown positively predicted psychological difficulties (children: beta = 0.18, p < 0.001; adolescents: beta = 0.13, p < 0.001), while free time spent with parents was protective (children: beta = −13, p < 0.001; adolescents: beta = −0.12, p < 0.001). For children (but not adolescents), increased use of DDs mediated the effects of free time spent with parents on psychological difficulties (children: beta = −0.01, 95% CI [−0.018, −0.002]; adolescents: beta = −0.003, 95% CI [−0.009, 0.003]). The findings provide new insights for education and research.

Lockdown due to Covid-19 sanitary emergency causes a sudden break for scholar, social, cultural activities and sports. The aim of this work was to highlight changes in habits of life for children and teenagers with a particular focus on school activities. An on-line questionnaire was administrated to 5022 parents of children aged from 3 to 18 years. Results showed that secondary schools were able to guarantee at least hours of on-line lessons for half of the ordinary timing of schools. For preschooler and primary school, it seems that the recommended attention to maintain relations between the class group was less respected. So it seems that, during lockdown, children and teenagers were exposed to poverty of education and deprivation of social relationships. Probably due to lack of an adequate training for teachers, distance learning did not favored didactics strategies different from the traditional ones above all for preschool and primary schools.