Fluid resuscitation remains a cornerstone in the management of acute bleeding. According to Starling's “Three-compartment model”, four-times more crystalloids have the same volume effect as colloids. However, this volume-replacement ratio remains a controversial issue as it may be affected by the degradation of the endothelial glycocalyx layer, a situation often found in the critically ill. Our aim was to compare colloid and crystalloid based fluid resuscitation during an experimental stroke volume index (SVI) guided hemorrhage and resuscitation animal model. Anesthetized and mechanically ventilated pigs were randomized to receive a colloid (Voluven®,HES, n=15) or crystalloid (Ringerfundin®,RF, n=15) infusion. Animals were bled till baseline SVI (Tbsl) dropped by 50% (T0), followed by resuscitation until initial SVI was reached (T4) in four steps. Invasive hemodynamic measurements, blood gas analyses and laboratory tests were performed at each assessment points. Glycocalyx degradation markers (Syndecan-1/hematocrit ratio, Glypican/hematocrit ratio) were determined at Tbsl, T0 and T4. Similar amounts of blood were shed in both groups (HES group: 506±159 mls blood, RF group: 470±127 mls blood). Hemodynamic changes followed the same pattern without significant difference between the groups. Animals received significantly less resuscitation fluid in the HES compared to the RF-group: 425 [320-665], vs 1390 [884-1585] mls, p <0.001. The volume replacement ratio was 0.92 [0.79-1.54] for HES; and 3.03 [2.00-4.23] for the RF-group (p <0.001). There was no significant difference between the groups in the glycocalyx degradation markers. In this moderate bleeding-resuscitation animal model the volume-replacement ratio for crystalloids and colloids followed similar patterns as predicted by Starling's principle, and the glycocalyx remained intact. This indicates that in acute bleeding events, such as trauma or during surgery, colloids may be beneficial as hemodynamic stability may be achieved more rapidly than with crystalloids.

Background: Internal hemorrhage is a medical emergency, which requires immediate causal therapy, but the recognition may be difficult. The reactive changes of the mesenteric circulation may be part of the earliest hemodynamic responses to bleeding. Methane is present in the luminal atmosphere; thus, we hypothesized that it can track the intestinal circulatory changes, induced by hemorrhage, non-invasively. Our goal was to validate and compare the sensitivity of this method with an established technique using sublingual microcirculatory monitoring in a large animal model of controlled, graded hemorrhage and the early phase of following fluid resuscitation. Materials and Methods: The experiments were performed on anesthetized, ventilated Vietnamese minipigs (approval number: V/148/2013; n = 6). The animals were gradually bled seven times consecutively of 5% of their estimated blood volume (BV) each, followed by gradual fluid resuscitation with colloid (hydroxyethyl starch; 5% of the estimated BV/dose) until 80 mmHg mean arterial pressure was achieved. After each step, macrohemodynamic parameters were recorded, and exhaled methane level was monitored continuously with a custom-built photoacoustic laser-spectroscopy unit. The microcirculation of the sublingual area, ileal serosa, and mucosa was examined by intravital videomicroscopy (Cytocam-IDF, Braedius). Results: Mesenteric perfusion was significantly reduced by a 5% blood loss, whereas microperfusion in the oral cavity deteriorated after a 25% loss. A statistically significant correlation was found between exhaled methane levels, superior mesenteric artery flow (r = 0.93), or microcirculatory changes in the ileal serosa (ρ = 0.78) and mucosa (r = 0.77). After resuscitation, the ileal mucosal microcirculation increased rapidly [De Backer score (DBS): 2.36 ± 0.42 vs. 8.6 ± 2.1 mm⁻¹], whereas serosal perfusion changed gradually and with a lower amplitude (DBS: 2.51 ± 0.48 vs. 5.73 ± 0.75). Sublingual perfusion correlated with mucosal (r = 0.74) and serosal (r = 0.66) mesenteric microperfusion during the hemorrhage phase but not during the resuscitation phase. Conclusion: Detection of exhaled methane levels is of diagnostic significance during experimental hemorrhage as it indicates blood loss earlier than sublingual microcirculatory changes and in the early phase of fluid resuscitation, the exhaled methane values change in association with the mesenteric perfusion and the microcirculation of the ileum.

Absztrakt: Bevezetés: A nem okkluzív mesenterialis ischaemia (NOMI) anatómiai okok nélkül alakul ki, korai diagnosztizálása nehéz, terápiája sem megoldott. Modellkísérleteinkben a komplement C5a gátlásán keresztül a komplementaktiváció szerepét vizsgáltuk a kórfolyamatban. Anyagokés módszerek: A NOMI rövid és hosszú távú hemodinamikai és gyulladásos következményeinek jellemzéséhez Sprague–Dawley patkányokban (n = 28) 60 perces parciális aortaokklúziót (PAO; hasi aorta, truncus coeliacustól proximálisan; arteria femoralis középnyomása: 30–40 Hgmm), míg vietnami törpesertésekben (n = 19) 60 perces pericardialis tamponádot (artériás középnyomás: 40–50 Hgmm) hoztunk létre. A PAO, valamint a tamponád 45. percében komplement C5a-gátló kezelést alkalmaztunk (acetil-peptid-A; 4 mg/kg iv.). Az állatokban monitoroztuk a makro- és mikrokeringést, mértük a leukocytainfiltrációt, a gyulladásos mediátorok (endothelin, HMGB-1) plazmaszintjét. Eredmények: Patkányokban a PAO megszüntetése után 24 órával a C5a gátlása csökkentette a szisztémás gyulladásos válasz részeként megemelkedett perctérfogatot (203,1 ± 5 vs. 269,6 ± 8,1 ml/‌min/‌kg) és arteria mesenterica superior (AMS) áramlását, fokozta az ileum mucosa mikrokeringését (833,5 ± 33,8 vs. 441,9 ± 22,4 μm/s). Az acetil-peptid-A sertésekben átmenetileg növelte az AMS áramlását és tartósan az ileummucosa-kapillárisáramlást (648,1 ± 45,4 vs. 329,8 ± 12,6 μm/s). A kezelt állatoknál alacsonyabb gyulladásos mediátorszintet és szöveti leukocytainfiltrációt mértünk mindkét NOMI-modellben. Következtetések: A komplementaktiváció jelentős szerepet játszik a NOMI alatt bekövetkező makro- és mikrokeringési zavar kialakulásában, a C5a gátlása a gyulladásos folyamat mérséklése mellett befolyásolja a NOMI hemodinamikai következményeit is.

Background: Severe respiratory failure often requires veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (v-v ECMO) treatment, a procedure frequently associated with acute kidney injury (AKI). Preclinical studies have demonstrated the anti-inflammatory properties of inhaled methane (CH₄). This experimental protocol aimed to investigate whether CH₄ gas administration could mitigate the development of AKI in a clinically relevant large animal model of v-v ECMO. Methods: Anesthetized miniature pigs were divided into three groups (n = 6 each). Following cannulation of the right femoral and internal jugular veins, v-v ECMO was initiated and maintained for 24 h, followed by a 6-h post-ECMO observation. The control group underwent cannulation without ECMO, while the v-v ECMO+CH₄ group received a 2% CH₄-air mixture via the oxygenator. Urine output was recorded, and kidney injury was assessed using plasma and urine neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin levels. Inflammatory activation was evaluated through plasma interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) levels. Kidney tissue samples were analyzed for histopathological changes, xanthine oxidoreductase and myeloperoxidase activities, and nitrite/nitrate levels. Results: The CH₄-treated group exhibited significantly higher post-ECMO renal arterial flow (244.7 ± 70 vs. 96.3 ± 21 mL/min) and increased average urine output (5.75 ± 1.6 vs. 3.25 ± 0.4 mL/h/kg) compared to the v-v ECMO group. CH₄ administration reduced urine and plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin levels and demonstrated lower histological damage scores (0.8 ± 0.3 vs. 3.3 ± 0.8). Furthermore, CH₄ treatment decreased xanthine oxidoreductase and myeloperoxidase activities and reduced inflammatory mediators, including IL-1β, IL-8, and nitrite/nitrate. Conclusion: CH₄ admixture significantly mitigates inflammatory activation and renal injury associated with v-v ECMO. These findings suggest that CH₄ may serve as an effective adjunctive means to reduce renal complications of v-v ECMO therapy.