Reactance theory might be profitably applied to understanding failures in persuasive health communication but for one drawback: The developer of the theory contends that reactance cannot be measured. Rejecting this position, this paper develops four alternative conceptual perspectives on the nature of reactance (i.e., combinations of cognition and affect), then provides an empirical test of each. Two parallel studies were conducted, one advocating flossing the other urging students to limit their alcohol intake In both cases, a composite index of anger and negative cognitions fully mediated the effects of threat-to-freedom and trait reactance on attitude and intention. The data showed that, in fact, reactance can be operationalized as a composite of self-report indices of anger and negative cognitions. The implications for persuasive communication, in general, are considered as well the specific findings for flossing and drinking.

State empathy during message processing was conceptualized as a process where perception of the characters’ state automatically activates the recipient's vicarious experience of their state, situation, and object, which automatically primes and generates the associated automatic and somatic responses that precede persuasion outcomes. It was proposed that there are three dimensions within state empathy: affective, cognitive, and associative empathy. A 12-item scale was developed as a measurement instrument. Confirmatory factor analyses of data from two samples, one of college students (N = 289) and the other of the general public (N = 189), showed that the scale was unidimensional on the second order. The scale exhibited good internal and external consistency, convergent, and discriminant validity. The scale also had good reliability. Implications for future research and health communication were discussed.

Perceived realism may be a crucial message characteristic facilitating narrative-based persuasion. This study examined dimensions of perceived realism and their roles in narrative persuasion. Data based on responses to messages on three topics showed that perceived realism was multidimensional. Its dimensions included plausibility, typicality, factuality, narrative consistency, and perceptual quality. Plausibility predicted emotional involvement, but not identification. Typicality predicted identification, but not emotional involvement. Narrative consistency and perceptual quality predicted message evaluation. Emotional involvement, identification, and message evaluation, in turn, predicted attitudes. Implications for theory, research, and message design pertinent to narrative persuasion are discussed.