The biological synthesis of nanoparticles with copper, silver, and zinc (Cu, Ag, Zn) is reported in this study, adopting a greener, safe, reliable, and eco-friendly approach by using an aqueous leaf extract of Catharanthus roseus. The synthesised trimetallic nanoparticles were characterised using different characterisation techniques. The UV–visible spectroscopic technique was initially used to assess nanoparticle formation, in which absorption bands were observed at 220, 270, and 370 nm for Cu, Zn, and Ag nanocomposites, respectively. XRD revealed that the average crystalline size of the nanocomposites was 34.67 nm. The roles of reducing and capping/stabilising agents in the synthesis of Cu/Ag/Zn nanoparticles were confirmed by FTIR analysis, and the successful biosynthesis of the same was also confirmed by X-ray energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDX) analysis. Potential applications of these synthesised trimetallic nanoparticles were evaluated by assessing their antioxidant and catalytic dye degradation activities. The antioxidant activity of the synthesised nanomaterial was studied using the DPPH assay. The catalytic breakdown of the harmful dyes phenol red and eosin yellow was examined using NaBH₄ as a reducing agent. The results showed that the nanomaterial’s radical scavenging capacity at 1000 ug/mL was 75.76% and the degradation of these dyes was up to 78% in the presence of NaBH₄. Furthermore, the biogenic trimetallic nanomaterial exhibited effective catalytic degradation activity against methyl red and phenol red dyes.

Nanoparticles are materials whose size is less than 100 nm. Because of their distinctive physical and chemical characteristics, nanoparticles have drawn considerable interest in a variety of fields. Biosynthesis of nanoparticles is a green and environmentally friendly technology, which requires fewer chemical reagents, precursors, and catalysts. There are various types of nanomaterials, out of which trimetallic nanoparticles are receiving considerable interest in recent years. Trimetallic nanoparticles possess unique catalytic, biomedical, antimicrobial, active food packaging, and sensing applications as compared to monometallic or bimetallic nanoparticles. Trimetallic nanoparticles are currently synthesized by various methods such as chemical reduction, microwave-assisted, thermal, precipitation, and so on. However, most of these chemical and physical methods are expensive and toxic to the environment. Biological synthesis is one of the promising methods, which includes the use of bacteria, plants, fungi, algae, waste biomass, etc., as reducing agents. Secondary metabolites present in the biological agents act as capping and reducing agents. Green trimetallic nanoparticles can be used for different applications such as anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal, catalytic activity, etc. This review provides an overview of the synthesis of trimetallic nanoparticles using biological agents, and their applications in different areas such as anticancer, antimicrobial activity, drug delivery, catalytic activity, etc. Finally, current challenges, future prospects, and conclusions are highlighted.

Dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) is widely used in vivo to induce epithelial injury; however, the epithelial-specific responses to DSS and mechanisms associated with barrier restoration remain incompletely understood. Here, we establish an in vitro DSS-induced epithelial damage model using differentiated Caco-2 cell monolayers. Exposure to 2.5%(w/v) DSS for 24 h resulted in significant upregulation of the pore-forming protein Claudin-2(CLDN2) (2.677-fold) and elevated oxidative marker protein levels of NADPH oxidase 1 (NOX1), accompanied by increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production confirmed via dihydroethidium (DHE) staining. Increased epithelial permeability was observed by transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) analysis, without significant cytotoxicity. Surprisingly, ELISA analysis revealed significant downregulation of Interleukin-6 (IL-6) (0.364 ± 0.034 pg/mL) following DSS exposure. Treatment with 1 ng/mL recombinant IL-6 (rIL-6) improved epithelial barrier function during continued DSS exposure, whereas a higher dose of 5 ng/mL did not produce the same restorative response. Furthermore, treatment of DSS-damaged Caco-2 monolayer with 10 mM butyrate significantly improved epithelial barrier function. Collectively, this study establishes a reproducible DSS-induced Caco-2 epithelial injury model and demonstrates concentration-dependent effects of rIL-6 and barrier-restorative effects of butyrate, providing an epithelial-specific platform for investigating intestinal barrier dysfunction relevant to IBD.