Antibiotics are among the most important discoveries of the 20th century, having saved millions of lives from infectious diseases. Microbes have developed acquired antimicrobial resistance (AMR) to many drugs due to high selection pressure from increasing use and misuse of antibiotics over the years. The transmission and acquisition of AMR occur primarily via a human–human interface both within and outside of healthcare facilities. A huge number of interdependent factors related to healthcare and agriculture govern the development of AMR through various drug-resistance mechanisms. The emergence and spread of AMR from the unrestricted use of antimicrobials in livestock feed has been a major contributing factor. The prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria has attained an incongruous level worldwide and threatens global public health as a silent pandemic, necessitating urgent intervention. Therapeutic options of infections caused by antimicrobial-resistant bacteria are limited, resulting in significant morbidity and mortality with high financial impact. The paucity in discovery and supply of new novel antimicrobials to treat life-threatening infections by resistant pathogens stands in sharp contrast to demand. Immediate interventions to contain AMR include surveillance and monitoring, minimizing over-the-counter antibiotics and antibiotics in food animals, access to quality and affordable medicines, vaccines and diagnostics, and enforcement of legislation. An orchestrated collaborative action within and between multiple national and international organizations is required urgently, otherwise, a postantibiotic era can be a more real possibility than an apocalyptic fantasy for the 21st century. This narrative review highlights on this basis, mechanisms and factors in microbial resistance, and key strategies to combat antimicrobial resistance.

Background: The diagnostic performance of numerous clinical specimens to diagnose COVID-19 through RT-PCR techniques is very important, and the test result outcome is still unclear. This review aimed to analyze the diagnostic performance of clinical samples for COVID-19 detection by RT-PCR through a systematic literature review process. Methodology: A compressive literature search was performed in PubMed/Medline, Scopus, Embase, and Cochrane Library from inception to November 2022. A snowball search on Google, Google Scholar, Research Gate, and MedRxiv, as well as bibliographic research, was performed to identify any other relevant articles. Observational studies that assessed the clinical usefulness of the RT-PCR technique in different human samples for the detection or screening of COVID-19 among patients or patient samples were considered for this review. The primary outcomes considered were sensitivity and specificity, while parameters such as positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV), and kappa coefficient were considered secondary outcomes. Results: A total of 85 studies out of 10,213 non-duplicate records were included for the systematic review, of which 69 articles were considered for the meta-analysis. The meta-analysis indicated better pooled sensitivity with the nasopharyngeal swab (NPS) than saliva (91.06% vs. 76.70%) and was comparable with the combined NPS/oropharyngeal swab (OPS; 92%). Nevertheless, specificity was observed to be better with saliva (98.27%) than the combined NPS/OPS (98.08%) and NPS (95.57%). The other parameters were comparable among different samples. The respiratory samples and throat samples showed a promising result relative to other specimens. The sensitivity and specificity of samples such as nasopharyngeal swabs, saliva, combined nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal, respiratory, sputum, broncho aspirate, throat swab, gargle, serum, and the mixed sample were found to be 91.06%, 76.70%, 92.00%, 99.44%, 86%, 96%, 94.4%, 95.3%, 73.63%, and above 98; and 95.57%, 98.27%, 98.08%, 100%, 37%, 100%, 100%, 97.6%, and above 97, respectively. Conclusions: NPS was observed to have relatively better sensitivity, but not specificity when compared with other clinical specimens. Head-to-head comparisons between the different samples and the time of sample collection are warranted to strengthen this evidence.

Infective endocarditis (IE), a heart valve infection primarily caused by bacteria such as streptococci or staphylococci, causes significant morbidity and mortality. Despite the long-term use of broad-spectrum antimicrobials, the infection is often difficult to manage. The latest diagnostic modalities for IE are discussed in this study. Blood culture use in pathogen identification can lead to loss of precious time as well as generation of false negative reports. The first steps in diagnosis are blood cultures and echocardiography, but molecular techniques can be extremely useful and may be used for an accurate and early diagnosis.

This study investigates parasitic and bacterial pathogens present in Hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas) and humans in southwestern Saudi Arabia. Fecal samples were collected from Hamadryas baboons (n = 999) from three city peripheries and humans from city centers (n = 1998) and peripheries (n = 1998) of southwestern and eastern Saudi cities. Parasitic examinations and bacterial cultures were conducted on these samples. Key findings include the identification of various parasitic and bacterial pathogens, with notable prevalences of Staphylococcus aureus (71.37% in baboons, 71.51% in humans), Blastocystis hominis (42.24% in baboons, 17.85% in humans), Cryptosporidium spp. (40.14% in baboons, 12.6% in humans), hookworms (37.44% in baboons, 18.57% in humans), Strongyloides spp. (37.34% in baboons, 17.39% in humans), Enterobius vermicularis (36.34% in baboons, 11.18% in humans), and Campylobacter spp. (29.73% in baboons, 1.86% in humans). Additionally, the prevalences of these microorganisms in human populations coexisting with baboons in southwestern city peripheries were 75.47%, 25.22%, 23.62%, 26.33%, 22.22%, 15.11%, and 3.8%, respectively. To further characterize bacterial isolates, 16S rRNA gene sequencing was used, suggesting potential zoonotic and anthroponotic cycles. The results highlight significant pathogen prevalence among both baboons and human populations in proximity to baboon habitats, indicating a potential public health risk. However, shared environmental sources, such as contaminated water, were not thoroughly assessed and could play a role in pathogen transmission. The study’s focus on 18 different parasitic and bacterial pathogens allowed for the targeting of prevalent and indicative markers of zoonotic and anthroponotic transmission. In conclusion, these baseline data are crucial for the design of advanced studies to further investigate the zoonotic and anthroponotic transmission dynamics and the environmental factors influencing pathogen prevalence.

Objectives: To develop a non-toxic, probiotic-infused activated charcoal/hydroxyapatite microbeads (PIMD) formulated with activated charcoal and hydroxyapatite. The formulation is designed to establish a stable probiotic biofilm on high-risk surfaces, such as medical sink basins and food cutting boards. Its dual mechanism aims to achieve rapid pathogen inhibition and long-term protection through sustained competitive exclusion, including against antibiotic-resistant microorganisms. Methods: An applied study was conducted in the Al-Baha region of Saudi Arabia (January 2021–May 2025) employing probiotic-based biotechnology to engineer spatially segregated microenvironments using activated charcoal–hydroxyapatite microbeads. The study integrated ecological modeling concepts—including Gause’s competitive exclusion principle, Lotka–Volterra dynamics and agent-based cross-feeding simulations—with antimicrobial sensitivity assays and surface disinfection trials. Twelve probiotic strains capable of competitively excluding pathogens and producing antimicrobial compounds were encapsulated within activated charcoal and hydroxyapatite porous microbeads. The efficacy of the novel disinfectant was evaluated on stainless steel sink basins, food-grade cutting boards, and culture plates challenged with 43 pathogenic strains. Results: The PIMD formulation remained physically stable under storage conditions, with probiotic viability largely preserved at –20 °C (0.46 log ₁₀ CFU/mL reduction) and 4 °C (0.89 log ₁₀ reduction) over 365 days. PIMD exhibited rapid broad-spectrum disinfection, reducing pathogen loads by ≥ 99.9% within 1 h, and maintained protective biofilm-mediated probiotic viability at ≥ 5.0 log ₁₀ CFU/cm ² for at least 21 days post-application across tested surfaces, including cutting boards, sink basins, and outdoor tiles. The mean inhibition zone diameter across 43 pathogens was 13.84 ± 1.23 mm, with a bactericidal outcome observed for 34.9% of tested strains. Conclusion: PIMD represents a dual-action strategy combining rapid disinfection with sustainable microbial balance, for reducing reliance on antibiotics and chemical disinfectants while enhancing surface safety in diverse environments such as healthcare, food facilities, and beyond.

Staphylococcus aureus can cause food poisoning, folliculitis, furuncles, carbuncles, abscesses, cellulitis, fasciitis, endocarditis, endovascular infections, pneumonia, septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, and sepsis. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) isolates were originally limited to hospitals, healthcare settings and laboratories. However, the frequency of community-acquired MRSA infections has alarmingly increased in the last two decades. The present study determined the prevalence of methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) and community-acquired methicillin-resistant S. aureus (CA-MRSA) on doorknobs/handles at the campus of Albaha University in Saudi. Samples from the doorknobs and handles collected between May 2021 and January 2022 were grown on mannitol salt agar and identified using conventional and molecular methods. A total of 35 (17.6%) and 12 samples (6%) were found positive for MSSA and MRSA, respectively. Current findings suggested that university staff and students were potential colonizers of MSSA and CA-MRSA and that fomites potentially transmitted infections to staff and students. Current findings strongly suggest the implementation of effective prevention measures as an essential step to decrease the risk of acquiring CA-MRSA infections in a public setting.