In order to study the diversity, phylogenetic relationships and distribution of marsh frogs of the Pelophylax ridibundus complex in Kazakhstan and northwest China, we conducted phylogeographic analyses of 125 samples from 53 localities using the mtDNA ND2 and COI genes and the SAI nuclear gene sequences. Phylogenetic inference of mtDNA revealed three main lineages—sister lineages Balkhash and Syrdarya (as the Central Asian P. sp. novum), and the Anatolian P. cf. bedriagae, while from nDNA data, we additionally detected the western form, P. ridibundus. According to mtDNA data, the mean genetic distances between P. sp. novum and two other forms of marsh frogs was more than 5%. Genetic homogeneity within populations of the Syrdarya lineage and P. cf. bedriagae is characterized by low nucleotide diversity and high haplotype diversity. Demographic analyses of the lineages showed past population expansions of the Balkhash and the Syrdarya forms. Divergence from the most recent ancestor had occurred in the Early Pleistocene period (2.46 Mya) for the Balkhash and the Syrdarya lineages, and 1.27 Mya for the P. cf. bedriagae. Our findings provide a first investigation of the lineage diversification and population dynamics of the Central Asian marsh frogs and will be useful for further taxonomic implications and conservational actions.

The Mongolian racerunner, Eremias argus, is a small lizard endemic to Northeast Asia that can serve as an excellent model for investigating how geography and past climate change have jointly influenced the evolution of biodiversity in this region. To elucidate the processes underlying its diversification and demography, we reconstructed the range-wide phylogeographic pattern and evolutionary trajectory, using phylogenetic, population genetic, landscape genetic, Bayesian phylogeographic reconstruction and ecological niche modeling approaches. Phylogenetic analyses of the mtDNA cyt b gene revealed eight lineages that were unbounded by geographic region. The genetic structure of E. argus was mainly determined by geographic distance. Divergence dating indicated that E. argus and E. brenchleyi diverged during the Mid-Pliocene Warm Period. E. argus was estimated to have coalesced at~0.4351 Ma (Marine Isotope Stage 19). Bayesian phylogeographic diffusion analysis revealed out-of-Inner Mongolia and rapid colonization events from the end of the Last Interglacial to the Last Glacial Maximum, which is consistent with the expanded suitable range of the Last Glacial Maximum. Pre-Last Glacial Maximum growth of population is presented for most lineages of E. argus. The Glacial Maximum contraction model and the previous multiple glacial refugia hypotheses are rejected. This may be due to an increase in the amount of climatically favorable habitats in Northeast Asia. Furthermore, E. argus barbouri most likely represents an invalid taxon. The present study is the first to report a range-wide phylogeography of reptiles over such a large region in Northeast Asia. Our results make a significant contribution towards understanding the biogeography of the entire Northeast Asia.

The Kunlun, Arjin, and Qilian mountain ranges mark the northern edge of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP), where rapid uplift and Quaternary glacial cycles have shaped a unique cold desert ecosystem and species distribution. Despite sampling challenges, phylogeographic studies are crucial for understanding reptile populations such as the Qinghai toad-headed agama (Phrynocephalus vlangalii), a viviparous lizard with limited dispersal and multiple subspecies in the northeastern QTP. Our fieldwork identified populations of P. vlangalii on the northern slope of the Kunlun–Arjin Mountains, similar to the controversial subspecies P. v. lidskii. We analyzed 130 individuals from the northern slope of the Kunlun–Arjin–Qilian Mountains and 253 individuals from GenBank, using three mitochondrial genes and two nuclear genes to assess intraspecific differentiation and demographic history. We found high haplotype diversity and low nucleotide diversity in P. vlangalii, with phylogenetic analyses revealing six distinct clades. Clade VI, confirmed as P. v. lidskii, and Clade IV, a new genetic lineage, were identified alongside three recognized subspecies. Genetic variation was largely attributed to clade splitting, indicating significant divergence. The Mantel test indicated that geographical and environmental factors drove population differentiation. Bayesian molecular clock analysis suggested that the most recent common ancestor of P. vlangalii lived 2.55 million years ago, influenced by the Qinghai–Tibet Movement and glacial cycles. Demographic history and ecological niche modeling (ENM) indicated no population decline during the Last Glacial Maximum, supporting the glacial maximum expansion model, with ENM predicting future habitat expansion for P. vlangalii. In addition, morphological data from 13 meristic and 15 metric characters confirmed clade differences. Our findings significantly advance our understanding of P. vlangalii diversification, population dynamics and response to geological and climatic changes in the QTP.

The Kunlun, Arjin, and Qilian mountain ranges mark the northern edge of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP), where rapid uplift and Quaternary glacial cycles have shaped a unique cold desert ecosystem and species distribution. Despite sampling challenges, phylogeographic studies are crucial for understanding reptile populations such as the Qinghai toad-headed agama (Phrynocephalus vlangalii), a viviparous lizard with limited dispersal and multiple subspecies in the northeastern QTP. Our fieldwork identified populations of P. vlangalii on the northern slope of the Kunlun-Arjin Mountains, similar to the controversial subspecies P. v. lidskii. We analyzed 130 individuals from the northern slope of the Kunlun-Arjin-Qilian Mountains and 253 individuals from GenBank, using three mitochondrial genes and two nuclear genes to assess intraspecific differentiation and demographic history. We found high haplotype diversity and low nucleotide diversity in P. vlangalii, with phylogenetic analyses revealing six distinct clades. Clade VI, confirmed as P. v. lidskii, and Clade IV, a new genetic lineage, were identified alongside three recognized subspecies. Genetic variation was largely attributed to clade splitting, indicating significant divergence. The Mantel test indicated that geographical and environmental factors drove population differentiation. Bayesian molecular clock analysis suggested that the most recent common ancestor of P. vlangalii was 2.55 million years ago, influenced by the Qinghai-Tibet Movement and glacial cycles. Demographic history and ecological niche modeling indicated no population decline during the Last Glacial Maximum, supporting the glacial maximum expansion model, with ENM predicting future habitat expansion for P. vlangalii. In addition, morphological data from 13 meristic and 15 metric characters confirmed clade differences. Our findings significantly advance our understanding of P. vlangalii diversification, population dynamics and response to geological and climatic changes in the QTP.