Decision-making (DM) is a critical aspect of soccer refereeing. Referees make numerous repetitive decisions, many of which are dependent on appropriate field location and effective interaction with their assistants. Considering the complexity of the sequential DM process, it is not surprising that referees exhibit high decision error rates. Most extant research has focused on the underlying mechanism of the DM process as well as on various influential factors. Less attention has been given to models that consider the range of influential factors which affect the DM process. This article, therefore, presents a new conceptual framework of sequential DM for soccer referees that relies on Tenenbaum’s (2003. Expert athletes: An integrated approach to decision making. In J. Starkes & A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sports: Advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 191–218). Human Kinetics) conceptual framework and the existing literature. We start by reviewing research on DM in soccer refereeing and then discuss conceptual considerations. We then present the new conceptual framework. This model incorporates a range of factors, including physical fitness and fatigue, field positioning, visual attention, contextual factors, game management, expertise, psychological factors, and team factors. Data obtained from a sample of 20 elite referees and assistants demonstrated the face validity of the new model. Finally, we introduce implications for training referees’ DM skills and highlight avenues for future research and conceptual developments.

We review current evidence on the linkage between emotion and decision-making (DM) in sports, and the appraisal, emotions, and cognitions linkage under temporal and societal pressure. The conceptual framework proposes that perceptions and actions are stored and retrieved from the same representation structure, and thus stimuli are either negatively or positively appraised and evoke emotions, which in turn activate cognitive processes linked to DM. The emotion–cognition congruence concept relies on the notion that neural network in long-term memory is activated when events occur, and influences the capacity of the cognitive system to make the decision for response execution. The quality of this process is considered by us as the underlying mechanism of functioning in or out of the individual or team zone of optimal functioning. We also claim that basic regulations stabilize the action system under conditions which vary in perceived pressure. Using mental routines stabilize the emotional level required to perform the task. Process regulations are used for capturing environmental cues to direct attention selectively, and make the response-selection and DM for action execution. The interface between the two coping regulations influences the quality of both the DM and consequent performance. This concept is applied to individual and team processes alike.

The aim of this paper is twofold: (1) to integrate several theoretical perspectives into a novel Meta-model of Adaption in Sport (MAS model) and (2) to support the MAS model with a narrative literature review on change-provoking events and related adaptation processes, factors involved, and outcomes. The MAS model is designed to account for two potential tracks of adaptation – fast and prolonged – that are situated along the continuum of adaptation experiences in sport. In each track, sport performers experience various types of sport-related events (i.e., acute events or change events) that are associated with specific sets of demands and perceptions related to self-efficacy beliefs and challenge-threat appraisal. Accordingly, the performer responds to these events by using the mechanisms which determine his/her adaptation process and outcomes. We present a narrative review of the literature related to both adaptation tracks that provide empirical support to the MAS model and conclude by offering reflections on the MAS model and its potential applications in sport psychology research and practice.

This study examined the effects of slow and fast music tempi on effort-related thoughts, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), affect, heart rate, and performance during isometric strength exercises. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (no-music control, fast-tempo music, and slow-tempo music) and performed two isometric strength exercises (wall-sit and plank). RPE, attention allocation, and affect were measured during each exercise task. Participants in both the fast- and slow-tempo music conditions maintained a dissociative state for longer than those in the no-music control condition during the wall-sit exercise; however, this effect did not manifest during the plank exercise. Neither music condition influenced HR, RPE, time to volitional exhaustion, or affect. Within the first few minutes of exercise, participants exhibited an increase in HR and perceived exertion, as well as a corresponding shift towards associative attention and a high arousal state. The results are discussed with reference to potential underlying mechanisms and current theories pertaining to RPE, attention allocation, and affect.

Introduction: Children’s maximal muscle strength is consistently lower than adults’, even when normalized to body size. Lower volitional muscle activation (VA) in children is often considered one of the main reasons for age-related differences in muscular performance. However, some recent studies have reported similar VA in children and adults, bringing into question whether there is indeed an age-related increase in VA. The purpose of this review was to determine the effect of age on VA during maximal isometric contractions. Methods: Literature examining VA differences, using twitch interpolation in children (7–14 yr) and adults (16–28 yr), was systematically reviewed. Of the 1915 studies initially identified, 19 data sets were eligible for inclusion in the qualitative analysis and 14 in the quantitative meta-analysis (comprising 207 children and 193 adults). Results: Significantly lower VA in children was reported in 9/19 (47%) studies. A random-effects meta-analysis found a strong effect of age on VA, supporting lower VA in children compared with adults (Hedges’ g = 1.55; confidence interval: 0.9–2.13). Moderator analysis included muscle group, sex, children’s age, stimulation number (singlet, multiple), type (electric, magnetic), and location (muscle, nerve), of which only muscle group was significant (P < 0.001). A significant Egger’s regression test and asymmetrical funnel plot suggest that publication bias may be present. Conclusions: Overall, these findings suggest that compared with adults, children activate their motor-unit pool less compared with adults. Moreover, that the degree of VA increase with age may be influenced by the muscle examined (upper vs lower extremity). However, more research is needed to elucidate the influence of this possible factor, as the current review contains limited data from upper body muscles. The developmental mechanism responsible for children’s lower VA requires further research.