We present a method for phase retrieval in propagation-based x-ray imaging, based on the contrast transfer and transport of intensity equation approaches. We show that the contrast transfer model does not coincide with the transport of intensity in the limit of small propagation distances, and we derive a new model that alleviates this problem. Using this model, we devise an algorithm to retrieve the phase from slowly varying samples that is valid beyond the limit of small distances. We show its utility by imaging in three dimensions a biological sample that causes both strong absorption and phase shift.

Bone strength and failure are increasingly thought to be due to ultrastructural properties, such as the morphology of the lacuno-canalicular network, the collagen fiber orientation and the mineralization on the nanoscale. However, these properties have not been studied in 3D so far. Here we report the investigation of the human bone ultrastructure with X-ray phase nanotomography, which now provides the required sensitivity, spatial resolution and field of view. The 3D organization of the lacuno-canalicular network is studied in detail over several cells in osteonal and interstitial tissue. Nanoscale density variations are revealed and show that the cement line separating these tissues is hypermineralized. Finally, we show that the collagen fibers are organized as a twisted plywood structure in 3D.

Mesenchymal stem cells deriving from dental pulp differentiate into osteoblasts capable of producing bone. In previous studies, we extensively demonstrated that, when seeded on collagen I scaffolds, these cells can be conveniently used for the repair of human mandible defects. Here, we assess the stability and quality of the regenerated bone and vessel network 3 years after the grafting intervention, with conventional procedures and in-line holotomography, an advanced phase-imaging method using synchrotron radiation that offers improved sensitivity toward low-absorbing structures. We found that the regenerated tissue from the graft sites was composed of a fully compact bone with a higher matrix density than control human alveolar spongy bone from the same patient. Thus, the regenerated bone, being entirely compact, is completely different from normal alveolar bone. Although the bone regenerated at the graft sites is not of the proper type found in the mandible, it does seem to have a positive clinical impact. In fact, it creates steadier mandibles, may well increase implant stability, and, additionally, may improve resistance to mechanical, physical, chemical, and pharmacological agents.

Bone is a composite organ that fulfils several interconnected functions, which may conflict with each other in pathological conditions. Bone vascularization is at the interface between these functions. The roles of bone vascularization are better documented in bone development, growth and modeling than in bone remodeling. However, every bone remodeling unit is associated with a capillary in both cortical and trabecular envelopes. Here we summarize the most recent data on vessel involvement in bone remodeling, and we present the characteristics of bone vascularization. Finally, we describe the various techniques used for bone vessel imaging and quantitative assessment, including histology, immunohistochemistry, microtomography and intravital microscopy. Studying the role of vascularization in adult bone should provide benefits for the understanding and treatment of metabolic bone diseases.