Plant stress is a significant challenge that affects the development, growth, and productivity of plants and causes an adverse environmental condition that disrupts normal physiological processes and hampers plant survival. Epigenetic regulation is a crucial mechanism for plants to respond and adapt to stress. Several studies have investigated the role of DNA methylation (DM), non-coding RNAs, and histone modifications in plant stress responses. However, there are various limitations or challenges in translating the research findings into practical applications. Hence, this review delves into the recent recovery, implications, and applications of epigenetic regulation in response to plant stress. To better understand plant epigenetic regulation under stress, we reviewed recent studies published in the last 5–10 years that made significant contributions, and we analyzed the novel techniques and technologies that have advanced the field, such as next-generation sequencing and genome-wide profiling of epigenetic modifications. We emphasized the breakthrough findings that have uncovered specific genes or pathways and the potential implications of understanding plant epigenetic regulation in response to stress for agriculture, crop improvement, and environmental sustainability. Finally, we concluded that plant epigenetic regulation in response to stress holds immense significance in agriculture, and understanding its mechanisms in stress tolerance can revolutionize crop breeding and genetic engineering strategies, leading to the evolution of stress-tolerant crops and ensuring sustainable food production in the face of climate change and other environmental challenges. Future research in this field will continue to unveil the intricacies of epigenetic regulation and its potential applications in crop improvement.

Remote sensing (RS) techniques offer advantages over other methods for measuring soil properties, including large-scale coverage, a non-destructive nature, temporal monitoring, multispectral capabilities, and rapid data acquisition. This review highlights the different detection methods, types, parts, and applications of RS techniques in soil measurements, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of the measurements of soil properties. The choice of the methods depends on the specific requirements of the soil measurements task because it is important to consider the advantages and limitations of each method, as well as the specific context and objective of the soil measurements, to determine the most suitable RS technique. This paper follows a well-structured arrangement after investigating the existing literature to ensure a well-organized, coherent review and covers all the essential aspects related to studying the advancement of using RS in the measurements of soil properties. While several remote sensing methods are available, this review suggests spectral reflectance, which entails satellite remote sensing and other tools based on its global coverage, high spatial resolution, long-term monitoring capabilities, non-invasiveness, and cost effectiveness. Conclusively, RS has improved soil property measurements using various methods, but more research is needed for calibration, sensor fusion, artificial intelligence, validation, and machine learning applications to enhance accuracy and applicability.

Dielectric properties are crucial in understanding the behavior of water within soil, particularly the soil water content (SWC), as they measure a material’s ability to store an electric charge and are influenced by water and other minerals in the soil. However, a comprehensive review paper is needed that synthesizes the latest developments in this field, identifies the key challenges and limitations, and outlines future research directions. In addition, various factors, such as soil salinity, temperature, texture, probing space, installation gap, density, clay content, sampling volume, and environmental factors, influence the measurement of the dielectric permittivity of the soil. Therefore, this review aims to address the research gap by critically analyzing the current state-of-the-art dielectric properties-based methods for SWC measurements. The motivation for this review is the increasing importance of precise SWC data for various applications such as agriculture, environmental monitoring, and hydrological studies. We examine time domain reflectometry (TDR), frequency domain reflectometry (FDR), ground-penetrating radar (GPR), remote sensing (RS), and capacitance, which are accurate and cost-effective, enabling real-time water resource management and soil health understanding through measuring the travel time of electromagnetic waves in soil and the reflection coefficient of these waves. SWC can be estimated using various approaches, such as TDR, FDR, GPR, and microwave-based techniques. These methods are made possible by increasing the dielectric permittivity and loss factor with SWC. The available dielectric properties are further synthesized on the basis of mathematical models relating apparent permittivity to water content, providing an updated understanding of their development, applications, and monitoring. It also analyzes recent mathematical calibration models, applications, algorithms, challenges, and trends in dielectric permittivity methods for estimating SWC. By consolidating recent advances and highlighting the remaining challenges, this review article aims to guide researchers and practitioners toward more effective strategies for SWC measurements.