In traditional Chinese medicine, the root bark and leaves of Schima argentea are utilized to treat dysentery, parasitic infections, and digestive disorders. In this study, the n-butanol extract of S. argentea (NBA) exhibited potent antioxidant properties, protecting HaCaT cells from UVB-induced damage, and was abundant in phenolic and flavonoid compounds. Using UPLC-QTOF-MS analysis, several antioxidants within NBA were identified. Among these, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, (+)-catechin, and procyanidin B2 effectively reduced ROS levels after 1 h post-UVB treatment (225 mJ/cm²). Notably, all three compounds significantly decreased the phosphorylation of p38 and JNK in a dose-dependent manner. Additionally, the cell survival rate of these compounds was assessed after 12 h post-UVB treatment (225 mJ/cm²). Both 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid and (+)-catechin significantly prevented UVB-induced apoptosis in HaCaT cells, as evidenced by MTT, Hoechst, Calcein/PI staining, and flow cytometry analyses. Proteomic analysis revealed that 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid achieved photoprotection by downregulating c-Fos and Jun and modulating cell cycle proteins, while (+)-catechin promoted cell repair through the PI3K-Akt and Wnt signaling pathways. These results demonstrated that both compounds can directly absorb UVB, scavenge ROS, and provide cell photoprotection by modulating multiple signaling pathways. The n-butanol extract of S. argentea holds promising potential for future medical applications.