Melittin, as an agent to lyse biological membranes, may be a promising therapeutic agent in the treatment of cancer. However, because of its nonspecific actions, there is a need to use a delivery method. The conducted research determined whether carbon nanoparticles, such as graphene and graphene oxide, could be carriers for melittin to breast cancer cells. The studies included the analysis of intracellular pH, the potential of cell membranes, the type of cellular transport, and the expression of receptor proteins. By measuring the particle size, zeta potential, and FT-IT analysis, we found that the investigated nanoparticles are connected by electrostatic interactions. The level of melittin encapsulation with graphene was 86%, while with graphene oxide it was 78%. A decrease in pHi was observed for all cell lines after administration of melittin and its complex with graphene. The decrease in membrane polarization was demonstrated for all lines treated with melittin and its complex with graphene and after exposure to the complex of melittin with graphene oxide for the MDA-MB-231 and HFFF2 lines. The results showed that the investigated melittin complexes and the melittin itself act differently on different cell lines (MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7). It has been shown that in MDA-MD-231 cells, melittin in a complex with graphene is transported to cells via caveolin-dependent endocytosis. On the other hand, the melittin–graphene oxide complex can reach breast cancer cells through various types of transport. Other differences in protein expression changes were also observed for tumor lines after exposure to melittin and complexes.

The epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a process in which epithelial cells acquire the ability to actively migrate via a change to the mesenchymal phenotype. This mechanism occurs in an environment rich in cytokines and reactive oxygen species but poor in nutrients. The aim of this study was to demonstrate that the use of a fullerene C₆₀ nanofilm can inhibit liver cancer cell invasion by restoring their non-aggressive, epithelial phenotype. We employed epithelial and mesenchymal HepG2 and SNU-449 liver cancer cells and non-cancerous mesenchymal HFF2 cells in this work. We used enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) to determine the content of glutathione and transforming growth factor (TGF) in cells. We measured the total antioxidant capacity with a commercially available kit. We assessed cell invasion based on changes in morphology, the scratch test and the Boyden chamber invasion. In addition, we measured the effect of C₆₀ nanofilm on restoring the epithelial phenotype at the protein level with protein membranes, Western blotting and mass spectrometry. C₆₀ nanofilm downregulated TGF and increased glutathione expression in SNU-449 cells. When grown on C₆₀ nanofilm, invasive cells showed enhanced intercellular connectivity; reduced three-dimensional invasion; and reduced the expression of key invasion markers, namely MMP-1, MMP-9, TIMP-1, TIMP-2 and TIMP-4. Mass spectrometry showed that among the 96 altered proteins in HepG2 cells grown on C₆₀ nanofilm, 41 proteins are involved in EMT and EMT-modulating processes such as autophagy, inflammation and oxidative stress. The C₆₀ nanofilm inhibited autophagy, showed antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, increased glucose transport and regulated the β-catenin/keratin/Smad4/snail+slug and MMP signalling pathways. In conclusion, the C₆₀ nanofilm induces a hybrid mesenchymal–epithelial phenotype and could be used in the prevention of postoperative recurrences.

Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) oil production generates substantial quantities of seed cake, an underutilized by-product with potential as a source of nutrients and bioactive compounds. This study aimed to characterize milk thistle cakes from two industrial sources (MTC1 and MTC2) and their corresponding seeds (MTS1 and MTS2), focusing on compositional properties, fatty acid profile, and antioxidant activity assessed using the DPPH scavenging assay. Proximate analysis showed that the cakes retained significant residual oil (9.26–14.51 g 100 g⁻¹) and protein (16–19 g 100 g⁻¹), with low water activity (<0.33), indicating good storage stability. Fatty acid analysis revealed a predominance of polyunsaturated fatty acids (49–52%), mainly linoleic acid (C18:2 n-6), confirming their nutritional value. Differences between industrial sources indicated variability associated with raw material and processing conditions. Extraction solvent significantly affected bioactive compound recovery from the oil fraction. Dichloromethane extracts exhibited higher total phenolic content (up to 8.87 mg GAE g⁻¹) and stronger DPPH radical scavenging activity (up to 28.07%) compared to hexane extracts, which may be attributed to a greater extraction of moderately polar phenolic compounds, including flavonolignan-type constituents potentially associated with silymarin complex. Overall, milk thistle cake represents a promising raw material for the recovery of natural antioxidants and valuable lipids, supporting its application in functional food or feed products and sustainable biorefinery processes.

Graphene oxide (GO)-based nanostructured biomaterials have emerged as promising platforms for tissue engineering due to their novel biointeractive properties. In this study, we developed polyamide 6 (PA6) scaffolds by electrospinning using the Nanospider technique. Unlike conventional laboratory-scale electrospinning systems, Nanospider™ employs a wire-based electrode coated with a thin layer of polymer solution, from which nanofibers are continuously generated under a high-voltage electric field, enabling the large-scale fabrication of scaffolds. The scaffolds were then nanostructured with GO to investigate the effect of surface modification on their physicochemical properties, and biological responses. Surface characterization demonstrated that GO incorporation altered the microtexture of PA6 scaffolds, leading to changes in topographical parameters and surface morphology. In vitro studies performed using human stromal HS-5 cells confirmed high cytocompatibility of both GO nanofilms and PA6-GO composites, with preserved metabolic activity and enhanced cell adhesion. Scanning electron microscopy revealed improved spreading, elongated morphology, and increased filopodia formation on GO-modified scaffolds. Gene expression analyses indicated modulation of mechanotransduction- and adhesion-related pathways, including differential regulation of FN1, FAK, and integrin-associated genes, suggesting that GO nanostructuring influences early cell–material interactions through combined effects on surface architecture and chemistry. Ex vivo studies using embryonic tissues derived from chicken embryo Gallus gallus demonstrated effective colonization of connective, cartilage, and bone tissues on GO-modified scaffolds. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that GO nanostructuring of electrospun PA6 scaffolds improves biointerface formation, supports mechanobiological adaptation, and promotes tissue development, highlighting the potential for regenerative medicine.