This systematic review examines the use of eye-tracking devices in optometry, describing their main characteristics, areas of application and metrics used. Using the PRISMA method, a systematic search was performed of three databases. The search strategy identified 141 reports relevant to this topic, indicating the exponential growth over the past ten years of the use of eye trackers in optometry. Eye-tracking technology was applied in at least 12 areas of the field of optometry and rehabilitation, the main ones being optometric device technology, and the assessment, treatment, and analysis of ocular disorders. The main devices reported on were infrared light-based and had an image capture frequency of 60 Hz to 2000 Hz. The main metrics mentioned were fixations, saccadic movements, smooth pursuit, microsaccades, and pupil variables. Study quality was sometimes limited in that incomplete information was provided regarding the devices used, the study design, the methods used, participants' visual function and statistical treatment of data. While there is still a need for more research in this area, eye-tracking devices should be more actively incorporated as a useful tool with both clinical and research applications. This review highlights the robustness this technology offers to obtain objective information about a person's vision in terms of optometry and visual function, with implications for improving visual health services and our understanding of the vision process.

(1) Background: Persistent COVID is characterized by the presence of fatigue, mental fog, and sleep problems, among others. We aimed to study cognitive abilities (attention, executive functions, memory, language) and psychological and emotional factors in a group of participants of the population with persistent COVID-19 and asymptomatic or non-COVID-19-infected patients; (2) Methods: A total of 86 participants aged 18 to 66 years (X = 46.76) took part in the study, with 57 individuals (66.27%) in the experimental group and 29 (33.73%) in the control group. A comprehensive assessment included neuropsychological evaluations, evaluations of anxious and depressive symptomatology, assessments of the impact of fatigue, sleep quality, memory failures in daily life, and the perceived general health status of the participants; (3) Results: significant differences between groups were found in incidental learning within the Key Numbers task (U = 462.5; p = 0.001; p = 0.022) and in the Direct Digit Span (U = 562; p = 0.022), but not in the Inverse Digit Span (U = 632.5; p = 0.105). Differences were also observed in the prospective memory task of the Rivermead Prospective Memory Tasks (from the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test) in the recall of quotations (U = 610; p = 0.020) as well as in the recall of objects (U = 681.5; p = 0.032). Concerning the task of verbal fluency, significant differences were found for both phonological cues (p- and s-) (t = −2.190; p = 0.031) and semantic cues (animals) (t = −2.277; p = 0.025). In terms of the psychological impact assessment, significant differences were found in the emotional impact across all variables studied (fatigue, quality of sleep, memory lapses, and the perceived general health status), except for quality of life; (4) Conclusions: Our results suggest that the sequelae derived from persistent COVID may have an impact on people’s lives, with higher levels of anxiety and depression, worse sleep quality, a greater number of subjective memory complaints, and a greater feeling of fatigue and impact on quality of life. Furthermore, poorer performance was observed in memory and verbal fluency.

Objective: To describe corneal confocal microscopy findings in patients with long COVID-19 with persistent symptoms over 20 months after SARS-CoV-2 infection. Design: A descriptive cross-sectional study that included a total of 88 patients; 60 patients with Long COVID-19 and 28 controls. Long COVID-19 diagnosis was established according to the World Health Organization criteria. Corneal confocal microscopy using a Heidelberg Retina Tomograph II (Heidelberg Engineering, Heidelberg, Germany) was performed to evaluate sub-basal nerve plexus morphology (corneal nerve fiber density, nerve fiber length, nerve branch density, nerve fiber total branch density, nerve fiber area, and nerve fiber width). Dendritic cell density and area, along with microneuromas and other morphological changes of the nerve fibers were recorded. Results: Long COVID-19 patients presented with reduced corneal nerve density and branch density as well as shorter corneal nerves compared to the control group. Additionally, Long COVID-19 patients showed an increased density of dendritic cells also with a greater area than that found in the control group of patients without systemic diseases. Microneuromas were detected in 15% of Long COVID-19 patients. Conclusions: Long COVID-19 patients exhibited altered corneal nerve parameters and increased DC density over 20 months after acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. These findings are consistent with a neuroinflammatory condition hypothesized to be present in patients with Long COVID-19, highlighting the potential role of corneal confocal microscopy as a promising noninvasive technique for the study of patients with Long COVID-19.

El presente artículo de revisión bibliográfica explora información contenida en documentos, trabajos de investigación y aportes científicos, con el fin de establecer la ruta histórica de la educación de las personas con discapacidad visual en el contexto costarricense. El documento aborda conceptualmente los hechos que han marcado la historia de la educación de las personas con discapacidad visual en Costa Rica, en coherencia con los paradigmas de la discapacidad: los inicios de la enseñanza especial desde el paradigma tradicional, el cambio hacia el paradigma de rehabilitación y la transformación de la educación a partir de un modelo social y de derechos. El proceso metodológico consistió en un proceso reflexivo y analítico de las publicaciones encontradas, mediante el desarrollo de fases de trabajo, lo cual facilitó el desarrollo de la temática, así como compilar y abstraer información representativa, con miras a establecer un encuadre conceptual-histórico. Para ello, se convino determinar las unidades conceptuales relevantes y su análisis respectivo. Como conclusiones, se puede destacar la importancia de establecer la elaboración de un marco referencial en procura de una mayor comprensión de la coyuntura social y educativa que la sociedad costarricense ha vivido, compartir los aprendizajes generados y tener mayores elementos para vislumbrar el camino a seguir en el fortalecimiento de una sociedad justa e inclusiva.

To assess eye movements during reading in individuals with central vision loss using eye-tracking technology and an ad-hoc calibration method. This pilot case control study included 17 participants (61.7 ± 8.8 years), 12 women and 5 men) and 17 controls, matched for age and sex. Two ad hoc computer-based tests were administered to analyze eye movements during a single-letter reading task and continuous reading task, measured using a 60 Hz eye-tracking device. Individuals with central vision loss showed differences from the control group, with an increase in the number of fixations, saccadic movements, and regressions, whereas the amplitude and speed of saccades were lower. This resulted in longer reading times in the study group. The results revealed lower performance in eye movements skills during reading tasks in patients with central vision loss. Eye-tracking devices allow the objective binocular assessment of eye movements during reading tasks. Our ad-hoc calibration method ensured minimal data loss and high validity, enhancing the reliability of the assessments. This information can be used to develop optimal and personalized functional and visual rehabilitation programs.

Objective: To determine, the impact of long COVID-19 on oculomotor behaviour. Design: A case–control study. Setting: Spanish Association of Persistent COVID. Participant: Participants were 75 cases (64 women, 11 men, mean age 46.4 years ±8.9) and 42 controls (22 women, 20 men, mean age 53.5 years ±13.13). Intervention: An eye-tracking test based on visual search paradigm and the Adult Developmental Eye Movement Test were used to evaluate the participants. Main measures: The primary outcomes in the Adult Developmental Eye Movement Test were horizontal reading time, vertical reading time, and their ratio. And for the eye-tracking test the time to find the target, the duration, and the number of eye fixations. Results: In cases and controls, eye movement test results were horizontal(Hadj) reading time 74.2 ± 22.7 s vs 52.0 ± 6.1 s ( p < .0001); vertical(Vadj) reading time 67.6 ± 17.8 s vs 50.4 ± 6.9 s ( p < .0001); Hadj/Vadj ratio 0.9 ± 0.1 vs 1.0 ± 0 ( p = .0032), respectively; and eye-tracking test results were fixation number 11.3 ± 3.07 vs 3.51 ± 2.57 ( p < .0001); fixation duration 2.01 ± 0.79 s vs 1.5 ± 0.4 s ( p = .0013), and time to find target 24.5 ± 8.0 vs 18 ± 9.4 ( p = .0034), respectively. Conclusions: Data showed a lower performance in oculomotor behaviour in people with long COVID-19, compared to healthy individuals. It cannot be affirmed an ocular musculature dysfunction; the differentiated behaviour could be associated to cognitive alterations affected in these people. Both tests used could be an useful tool for the clinical assessment of these participants. Further studies are needed to explore the utility of these procedures.