Pectin is a natural polymer that is found in the cell walls of higher plants. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of pectin extracted from lemon in two different geographic regions (Peddie and Fort Beaufort) in two consecutive years (2023 and 2024) named PP 2023, PP 2024, FBP 2023, and FBP 2024. The dried lemon peels were ground into a powder, sifted to obtain particles of 500 μm, and then subjected to pectin extraction using a conventional method involving mixing lemon peel powder with distilled water, adjusting the pH level to 2.0 with HCl, heating the mixture at 70 °C for 45 min, filtering the acidic extract, and precipitating pectin with ethanol. The yield of these pectin samples was statistically significant, as FBP 2024 had a maximum yield of 12.2 ± 0.02%, PP 2024 had a maximum yield of 13.0 ± 0.02%, FBP 2023 had a maximum yield of 12.2 ± 0.03%, and PP 2023 had a maximum yield of 13.1 ± 0.03%, The variation in yield could be due to the differences in the growing conditions, such as the climate and soil, which could have affected the pectin content in the lemons. The physicochemical characterization of all samples proved that our pectin samples could be used in the pharmaceutical and food industries, with anhydrouronic acid content which was greater than 65%, as suggested by the FAO. The scanning electron microscope analysis of all extracted pectin was rough and jagged, while the commercial pectin displayed a smooth surface morphology with a consistent size. FTIR confirmed the functional groups which were present in our samples. Thermogravimetric analysis was employed to investigate the thermal behavior of the extracted pectin in comparison with commercial pectin. It was found that the extracted pectin had three-step degradation while the commercial pectin had four-step degradation. Additionally, pectin samples have been shown to have antioxidants, as the IC₅₀ of PP 2024, PP 2023, FBP 2023, FBP 2024, and Commercial P was 1062.5 ± 20.0, 1201.3 ± 22.0, 1304.6 ± 19.0, 1382.6 ± 29.9, and 1019.4 ± 17.1 mg/L, respectively. These findings indicate that lemon pectin has promising characteristics as a biopolymer for use in biomedical applications.

Chitosan is a natural polymer derived from chitin through the deacetylation process. It has emerged as a key ingredient in sustainable wastewater treatment, due to its biodegradability, non-toxicity, and low cost. This biopolymer possesses abundant functional groups, such as -NH₂ and -OH, that efficiently interact with pollutants. This review offers a comprehensive evaluation of pollutant separation techniques involving chitosan-based materials, including adsorption, membrane filtration, flocculation, and photocatalysis. It further examines the underlying adsorption mechanisms, emphasizing how pollutants interact with chitosan and its derivatives at the molecular level. Special focus is given to various modifications of chitosan, alongside a comparative assessment of different chitosan-based adsorbents (hydrogels, nanoparticles, nanocomposites, microspheres, nanofibers, etc.), highlighting their performance in removing heavy metals, dyes, and emerging organic pollutants. The reviewed performance of these polymeric materials from 2015–2025 not only gives an insight about the recent advancement but also points the need for the design of high-performing chitosan-based adsorbents with applications in real water matrices.

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are described as a collection of chronic diseases that do not typically develop from an acute infection, have long-term health effects, and frequently require ongoing care and therapy. These diseases include heart disease, stroke, cancer, chronic lung disease, neurological diseases, osteoporosis, mental health disorders, etc. Known synthetic drugs for the treatment or prevention of NCDs become increasingly dangerous over time and pose high risks due to side effects such as hallucination, heart attack, liver failure, etc. As a result, scientists have had to look for other alternatives that are natural products and that are known to be less detrimental and contain useful bioactive compounds. The increasing understanding of the biological and pharmacological significance of carbohydrates has helped to raise awareness of their importance in living systems and medicine, given they play numerous biological roles. For example, pectin has been identified as a class of secondary metabolites found in medicinal plants that may play a significant role in the treatment and management of a variety of NCDs. Pectin is mainly made of homogalacturonan, which is a linear polymer composed primarily of D-galacturonic acid units (at least 65%) linked in a chain by α-(1,4)-glycosidic linkages. There are also modified pectins or derivatives that improve pectin’s bioavailability. Pectin is found in the cell walls of higher plants (pteridophytes, angiosperms, and gymnosperms), particularly in the middle lamella of the plant material. Citrus pectin is used in various industries. This article compiles information that has been available for years about the therapeutic importance of pectin in chronic diseases, different modes of pectin extraction, the chemistry of pectin, and the potency of pectin and its derivatives.

Chitosan (CS) is a biodegradable and biocompatible polysaccharide, obtained by the deacetylation of chitin. It has gained significant attention as a versatile material for biomedical applications due to its mucoadhesive properties, ease of chemical modification and intrinsic pharmacological activities. This review synthesizes two decades (2005–2025) of literature, focusing on chemical modifications of chitosan for pharmacological purposes and their therapeutic implications in non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and wound healing. Evidence highlights the roles of chitosan-based materials in anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, and neuroprotective activities, alongside their integration in advanced wound healing strategies. Clinical trials have demonstrated the translational potential of chitosan-based materials. In general, chitosan-based materials exhibit promising dual functions as bioactive agents and drug carriers, necessitating additional investigation in clinical and regulatory frameworks to accelerate therapeutic adoption. In contrast to other studies, this study offers a mechanistic and integrative viewpoint that links chitosan’s chemical modification techniques with their pharmacological effects and clinical translation potential, providing novel perspectives on structure–activity correlations and therapeutic design.

The current study explores some of the physicochemical characteristics of pectin extracted from Citrus limon cultivated in Fort Beaufort (FBP) and Peddie (PP) regions in South Africa and in different years (2023 and 2024). Pectin was extracted from the lemon peels. Differential scanning calorimetry was used for thermal analysis. The colour analysis of pectin showed that commercial P had a shade (brightness L * = 69.96), which suggests a preference for colours in food products, whereas PP 2024 had a darker shade (brightness L * = 61.03). Moreover, FBP 2023 exhibited a yellow hue (chromaticity C * = 24.50); in contrast, PP 2023 had a lower chromaticity. The ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance spectra of pectin revealed structural features like aliphatic carbons, methoxyl groups, and arabinose. The energy-dispersive X-ray analysis showed that all pectin samples had key elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Additionally, the reducing power of pectin samples revealed their potential antioxidant properties; however, ascorbic acid exhibited the highest reducing capacity. These results indicate that pectin possesses antioxidant properties. These findings help to provide a thorough understanding of pectin’s thermal, compositional, and functional attributes, enhancing its application potential in food, pharmaceuticals, and other industries.

Biopolymer-based materials have gained significant attention as sustainable alternatives for wastewater treatment due to their biodegradability, low toxicity, and high adsorption potential. Despite extensive research on individual materials such as chitosan, cellulose, and alginate, a comprehensive synthesis of global research trends integrating multiple biopolymers remains limited. This study addresses this gap through a large-scale bibliometric analysis of 13,720 publications indexed in the Scopus database from 1995 to 2025. The dataset was systematically analysed using VOSviewer to evaluate publication trends, leading journals, countries, institutions, collaboration networks, and keyword co-occurrence patterns. The results reveal a rapid growth phase after 2016, driven by increasing global demand for sustainable water treatment technologies. China, India, and the United States emerged as the most productive and influential contributors. Keyword analysis highlights adsorption, wastewater treatment, cellulose, and chitosan as dominant research themes, with growing emphasis on composite materials and functional modifications. Beyond descriptive metrics, this study identifies key research gaps, including limited focus on scalability, regeneration efficiency, and real-world application of biopolymer-based systems. The findings provide a comprehensive understanding of the evolution and current direction of the field, offering strategic insights for future research and development of high-performance, sustainable wastewater treatment materials.