This review describes state-of-the-art scientific and technological developments of electrospun nanofibers and their use in self-cleaning membranes, responsive smart materials, and other related applications. Superhydrophobic self-cleaning, also called the lotus effect, utilizes the right combinations of surface chemistry and topology to form a very high contact angle on a surface and drive water droplets away from it. The high-contact-angle water droplets easily roll off the surface, carrying with them dirt, particles, and other contaminants by way of gravity. A brief introduction to the theory of superhydrophobic self-cleaning and the basic principles of the electrospinning process is presented. Also discussed is electrospinning for the purpose of creating superhydrophobic self-cleaning surfaces under a wide variety of parameters that allow effective control of roughness of the porous structure with hydrophobic entities. The main principle of electrospinning at the nanoscale and existing difficulties in synthesis of one-dimensional materials by electrospinning are also covered thoroughly. The results of different electrospun nanofibers are compared to each other in terms of their superhydrophobic properties and their scientific and technological applications.

Fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) materials have gained significant traction in various industrial sectors, including aerospace, marine, and energy applications, owing to their outstanding mechanical properties, lightweight nature, high strength, and corrosion resistance. However, ensuring the reliability and durability of these materials under diverse environmental conditions, such as exposure to elevated temperatures, mechanical loads, and chemicals/oxidations, remains a critical challenge. In this study, we provide an in-depth insight into the failure mechanisms of FRC materials under several scenarios expected when in service or during operations, particularly for failure arising from mechanical, thermal, and chemical exposure, which are the main conditions experienced in aircraft, helicopters, drones, wind turbines, and ships. Moreover, we excerpt representative cases that illustrate changes in material properties due to prolonged exposure to an uneven temperature gradient leading to thermal expansion mismatch, matrix softening, and fiber degradation. Also, a critical examination of the stress distribution, damage evolution, and failure criteria of FRC materials due to mechanical loads under the tensile, flexural, impact, and compressive loading conditions through experimental, theoretical, and numerical studies is presented to offer significant contributions to the understanding of failure mechanisms and their consequences for structural design and performance optimization. Thus, chemical and oxidative degradation in FRC materials, including matrix degradation, fiber-matrix interface debonding, and their impact on mechanical properties, has been analyzed. The media include aviation fuels, seawater environments, hydraulic fluids, deicer, and acidic and alkaline solvents. Furthermore, this work includes an overview of numerical and analytical perspectives concerning the tripod (mechanical, thermal, and chemical oxidations). To bring forth a series of models, theories, and assumptions employed by several researchers to recreate real-world applications with very high accuracy to experimental data, a detailed overview of the FRC failure mechanism in various environmental conditions has been reviewed, and gaps that can be explored in future research have been highlighted. Challenges and limitations hindering the accurate screening of composite materials for intended applications have been reported. It is anticipated that scholars, engineers, and researchers engaged in the development and application of the FRC materials in the aerospace, marine, and energy industries will find this review beneficial. It will assist them in comprehending composite failures under different environmental and loading conditions and provide critical insights for advancing the design, manufacturing, durability, and reliability of the FRC-based structures and components in the harsh operating environments. Graphical Abstract

This paper presents an idea of using carbonized electrospun Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibers as a sensor material in a structural health monitoring (SHM) system. The electrospun PAN fibers are lightweight, less costly and do not interfere with the functioning of infrastructure. This study deals with the fabrication of PAN-based nanofibers via electrospinning followed by stabilization and carbonization in order to remove all non-carbonaceous material and ensure pure carbon fibers as the resulting material. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was used to determine the ionic conductivity of PAN fibers. The X-ray diffraction study showed that the repeated peaks near 42° on the activated nanofiber film were α and β phases, respectively, with crystalline forms. Contact angle, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were also employed to examine the surface, thermal and chemical properties of the carbonized electrospun PAN fibers. The test results indicated that the carbonized PAN nanofibers have superior physical properties, which may be useful for structural health monitoring (SHM) applications in different industries.