Chronic heart failure is a terminal point of a vast majority of cardiac or extracardiac causes affecting around 1–2% of the global population and more than 10% of the people above the age of 65. Inflammation is persistently associated with chronic diseases, contributing in many cases to the progression of disease. Even in a low inflammatory state, past studies raised the question of whether inflammation is a constant condition, or if it is, rather, triggered in different amounts, according to the phenotype of heart failure. By evaluating the results of clinical studies which focused on proinflammatory cytokines, this review aims to identify the ones that are independent risk factors for heart failure decompensation or cardiovascular death. This review assessed the current evidence concerning the inflammatory activation cascade, but also future possible targets for inflammatory response modulation, which can further impact the course of heart failure.

Background: Chronic inflammation is a constant phenomenon which accompanies the heart failure pathophysiology. In all phenotypes of heart failure, irrespective of the ejection fraction, there is a permanent low-grade activation and synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines. Many classes of anti-remodelling medication used in the treatment of chronic heart failure have been postulated to have an anti-inflammatory effect. Methods: This retrospective study enrolled 220 patients and focused on evaluating the effect of the most used active substances from these classes in reducing the level of inflammatory biomarkers (C reactive protein, erythrocyte sedimentation rate and fibrinogen) after initiation or up-titration. Our research is evaluating if this anti-inflammatory effect intensifies while raising the dose. The evaluation was performed at two visits with an interval between them of 6 months. Results: From the beta-blockers class, carvedilol showed a reduction in erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), in low (6.25 mg, bi daily) and medium (12.5 mg, bi daily) doses. At the same time, sacubitril/valsartan showed a reduction in CRP levels. This effect was obtained only in the medium (49/51 mg, bi daily) and high (97/103 mg, bi daily) doses, with the maximum reduction being observed in the high dose. Conclusions: From the classes of medication evaluated, the study showed a significant reduction in ESR levels in the low and medium doses of carvedilol and a reduction in CRP values in the cases of medium and high doses of ARNI.

Inflammation plays a major role in the etiology of chronic heart failure and in inducing the progression to end-stage heart failure. This chronic