The problem of access to clean water has been highlighted by the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals, and in areas such as Islamabad, Pakistan, water pollution is more of an immediate concern. The impact of excessive use of fertilizers coupled with improper waste management has harmed aquifers. This necessitates the need for tools to map out regions of concern and assist with clean-up strategies. This paper uses an amalgamation of the DRASTIC model and GIS capabilities to evaluate the contamination threat to aquifers in Islamabad. The model involves seven components: depth to water, recharge, aquifer media, soil media, topography, impact of the vadose zone, and hydraulic conductivity, and formulates an index of susceptibility within the range of 275–900. The areas were classified into five categories according to their level of susceptibility: very low (275–400; 22 km², 2%), low (400–525; 306 km², 28%), moderate (525–650; 500 km², 47%), high (650–775; 221 km², 21%), and very high (775–900; 26 km², 2%). Twenty-eight of the samples had nitrate concentrations ranging from − 0.72 ppm to 2.8 ppm which helped calibrate the model and did not show a high correlation with the DRASTIC index. This suggests that the contamination was limited and did not originate from widespread sources. The results highlight the importance of focusing measures on high-risk areas, such as Rawal Lake and the National Agricultural Research Center, where risks of contamination are severe. The baseline that the present study has developed is useful in terms of safe groundwater extraction and also offers a workable methodology for urban groundwater management practices in the world. Its usefulness is enhancing policies aimed at protecting clean water resources and reducing the risk of environmental degradation in sensitive areas worldwide.

The Study area lies in the southern Kohat deformed fold and thrust belt. This part of the Kohat plateau, borders the southern extension of the Himalayan deformation, with the Salt range to the south most. The research is based on DRASTIC model. Anthropogenic activities have the potential to pollute groundwater. An essential component of managing groundwater is vulnerability mapping. This study used the DRASTIC model to analyze aquifer vulnerability and identify the hydrogeological condition in the southern portion of the Karak, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. For the models, the information layers were provided via geographic information systems (GIS). The DRASTIC model uses seven environmental parameters. Vulnerability index concentrations were found to be 0.78% for Very Low vulnerability, 9.57% for Low vulnerability, 24.96% for Moderate vulnerability, 54.01% for High vulnerability, and 10.68% for Very High vulnerability, according to the results. A total 164.446 km² of the total 1,540 km² area is covered by the Very High vulnerable zone. The highest Nitrate concentration recorded in the area is 11 ppm and lowest is 4.4 ppm. Around 45% of the samples surpassed the approved limit of PSQWA (Pakistan Standards and Quality Control Authority) and NSQWQ (National Standards for Quality of Water) standard. The concentration of Nitrate >10 ppm represent that some human action has contributed toward the highest concentration.

Introduction: Lead (Pb) contamination in drinking water poses serious public health risks, particularly when concentrations exceed the WHO permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 0.01 mg/L (10 ppb). This study investigates Pb levels in drinking water sources across five districts Kohat, Hangu, Dera Ismail Khan (D.I. Khan), Bannu, and Karak to assess contamination severity, spatial distribution, and potential health risks.Methods: Drinking water samples were collected from multiple locations within the five districts and analyzed for Pb concentrations. Statistical analyses, including one-way ANOVA and the Shapiro-Wilk normality test, were conducted to evaluate variations and data distribution. Health risk assessment was performed using estimated daily intake (EDI) and hazard quotient (HQ) calculations. Additionally, geospatial analysis using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) modeling was employed to identify contamination hotspots.Results: All districts exceeded the WHO PEL for Pb, with the highest mean concentrations recorded in Bannu (0.720 mg/L) and Karak (0.693 mg/L). Maximum Pb levels reached 1.809 mg/L in Bannu and 1.572 mg/L in Karak. Exceedance rates were 100% in Hangu, Bannu, and Karak. ANOVA analysis (p-value = 8.16 × 10⁻¹¹) indicated significant variations among districts, while the Shapiro-Wilk test (W = 0.742, p-value < 0.0001) confirmed non-normal data distribution. Health risk assessment revealed critical risks, particularly for children, with HQ values exceeding safe thresholds, notably in Bannu and Karak. Geospatial modeling identified contamination hotspots, including Jozara Water (Hangu), Mufti Mehmood Circuit House (D.I. Khan), and Kalanger (Bannu).Discussion and conclusion: The findings highlight widespread Pb contamination in drinking water across the study area, posing severe health risks. Immediate intervention through advanced water treatment, stringent regulatory enforcement, and continuous monitoring is essential to safeguard public health.

The current research work is an attempt to apply the basic geological procedures, methods of geological mapping, surface and subsurface interpretation and restoration of balanced and retrodeformed cross sections from the Nizampur basin, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The work also includes the documentation of several surface structural features, i.e., anticlines, synclines and different types of folds and faults exposed in the vicinity of study area. Four central thrust faults were recognized named as Kahi Thrusts along the cross sections. These thrust faults carried the older sequences of rocks over the younger sequences in different portion along the measured cross section. The folded and faulted rocks in the area show that stratigraphic framework comprises of Eocene, Paleocene, Cretaceous and Jurassic succession of rocks. There are Eocene rocks existing in the extreme South of the mapped area with addition of older Cretaceous and Jurassic succession and contains simple and large-scale folds, faults and back thrust. Two structural transect were mapped which encounter different folds and faults, i.e., X-sections AB oriented NS and CD oriented NE-SW. Restoration of the structural transects was calculated and assumed that at the formation of Main Boundary Thrust, the study area was exposed to the tectonic forces which prognosticated 19.5% shortening in rock sequences from Jurassic to Eocene succession along the measured cross section A_B.