Lipid nanoparticles are a clinically validated platform for delivering nucleic acids, but performance is constrained by multiscale physiological barriers spanning circulation, vascular interfaces, extracellular matrices, cellular uptake, and intracellular trafficking. This review links composition–structure–function relationships for ionizable lipids, helper phospholipids, cholesterol, and PEG-lipids to systemic fate, endothelial access, endosomal escape, cytoplasmic stability, and nuclear transport. We outline strategies for tissue and cell targeting, including hepatocyte ligands, immune and tumor selectivity, and selective organ targeting through compositional tuning, together with approaches that modulate escape using pH-responsive chemistries or fusion-active peptides and polymers. We further examine immunomodulatory co-formulation, route and schedule effects on biodistribution and immune programming, and manufacturing and stability levers from microfluidic mixing to lyophilization. Across these themes, we weigh trade-offs between stealth and engagement, potency and tolerability, and potency and manufacturability, noting that only a small fraction of endosomes supports productive release and that protein corona variability and repeat dosing can reshape tropism and clearance. Convergence of standardized assays for true cytosolic delivery, biomarker-guided patient selection, and robust process controls will be required to extend LNP therapeutics beyond the liver while sustaining safety, access, and scale.

Recently, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as pivotal mediators of intercellular communication that reflect physiological homeostasis and pathological alterations. By encapsulating diverse biomolecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, EVs mirror the molecular signatures of their parent cells, thereby positioning EV-based biosensing as a transformative platform for noninvasive diagnostics, prognostic prediction, and therapeutic monitoring. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current state and clinical translation of EV biosensing technologies. Herein, we have discussed ongoing efforts toward standardization and analytical validation (e.g., MISEV2023 and EV-TRACK) and evaluated advances in sensing modalities such as surface plasmon resonance (SPR), electrochemical, fluorescence, and magnetic detection systems, which have significantly improved analytical performance in terms of sensitivity and specificity. Furthermore, we highlight recent developments in multiplexed and multiomics integration at the single-EV level and the application of machine learning to enhance diagnostic accuracy and interpret biological heterogeneity. The clinical relevance of EV biosensing has been explored across multiple disease domains, including oncology, neurology, and cardiometabolic and infectious diseases, with an emphasis on translational progress toward standardized, regulatory-compliant, and scalable platforms. Finally, this review identifies key challenges in manufacturing scale-up, quality control, and point-of-care deployment and proposes a unified framework to accelerate the adoption of EV biosensing as a cornerstone of next-generation precision diagnostics and personalized medicine.

Chronic and hard-to-heal wounds remain burdensome because microbial contamination, dysregulated inflammation, and fragile tissue regeneration slow closure, while passive dressings often injure new tissue during removal. This review synthesizes polymer- and lipid-based nanostructures through a barrier-resolved lens that links composition, architecture, and processing to performance in protease- and salt-rich exudate across topical and transdermal routes. Quantitative trends include effective diameters of approximately 50–300 nm, practical constraints of sterile filtration at 0.2 μm, and therapeutic windows that prioritize contamination control on the first day, support proliferation around day three, and sustain remodeling beyond one week. Mechanistic evidence indicates that interfacial charge and the protein corona govern residence and uptake, lipid bilayers enable dual loading, degradable polymer matrices provide depot-like behavior, and hybrid constructs temper the early burst while improving storage stability.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) therapies have emerged as potent and personalized alternatives to conventional DNA-based therapies. However, their therapeutic potential is frequently constrained by their molecular instability, susceptibility to degradation, and inefficient cellular delivery. This study presents the nanoparticle “ChargeSome” as a novel solution. ChargeSomes are designed to protect mRNAs from degradation by ribonucleases (RNases) and enable cell uptake, allowing mRNAs to reach the cytoplasm for protein expression via endosome escape. We evaluated the physicochemical properties of ChargeSomes using ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier-transform infrared, and dynamic light scattering. ChargeSomes formulated with a 9:1 ratio of mPEG-b-PLL to mPEG-b-PLL-SA demonstrated superior cell uptake and mRNA delivery efficiency. These ChargeSomes demonstrated minimal cytotoxicity in various in vitro structures, suggesting their potential safety for therapeutic applications. Inherent pH sensitivity enables precise mRNA release in acidic environments and structurally protects the encapsulated mRNA from external threats. Their design led to endosome rupture and efficient mRNA release into the cytoplasm by the proton sponge effect in acidic endosome environments. In conclusion, ChargeSomes have the potential to serve as effective secure mRNA delivery systems. Their combination of stability, protection, and delivery efficiency makes them promising tools for the advancement of mRNA-based therapeutics and vaccines.

A fluorescence-based detection platform was developed for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a key biomarker of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). This platform utilizes localized surface plasmon resonance effects resulting from the interactions between silica-coated gold nanoparticles (Au@SiO₂) and enzymatically synthesized quantum dots (QDs). The gold nanoparticles were silica coated via the hydrolysis of tetraethyl orthosilicate, which allowed for precise control over the distance between the nanoparticles and QDs and refined the dynamics of fluorescence quenching and enhancement. Antibody conjugation was performed via sequential amination and carboxylation, followed by EDC/NHS coupling. BDNF was detected across a range of concentrations, from 1 ng/mL to 1 ng/mL, using an alkaline phosphatase (ALP)-conjugated polyclonal antibody targeting a secondary epitope of BDNF. The enzymatic hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl phosphate by immobilized ALP led to the formation of cadmium sulfide QDs, with the fluorescence intensity correlating directly with the BDNF concentration. This platform offers a refined and precise method for detecting BDNF and is a reliable tool for the early diagnosis of AD.

This study aims to develop an integrated waste to sensor platform that couples photocatalytic PET depolymerization with on stream quantification of coexisting heavy metals. We achieve this by preparing AIM-202 through surface coordination of Ag to a water stable Zr-aspartate MOF (MIP-202), creating Ag ⁰ /Ag ^δ+ electron sink sites that enhance charge separation and reactive oxygen species generation while preserving the parent framework. The material was characterized by FT-IR, XRD, XPS, photoluminescence, KPFM, and EPR, and its photocatalytic activity was evaluated under Xe lamp irradiation. AIM-202 (5 mg mL–1) oxidized PET with increased FT-IR oxidation indices and surface pitting, and generated soluble products that increased from 151.40 µmol (week 1) to 277.27 µmol (week 2), corresponding to 11.63% and 28.68% conversion to quantified byproducts. The PET derived fluorophore 2-hydroxyterephthalate enabled fluorescence quenching based Cu ²⁺ and Fe ³⁺ sensing, and physics guided models refined with lightweight machine learning provided robust concentration back calculation. The novelty lies in a closed loop design in which MOF mediated depolymerization simultaneously produces the sensing reporter and enables data assisted quantification, supporting scalable remediation and monitoring within a single integrated scheme.