With the growing emphasis on green chemistry and the ecological environment, researchers are increasingly paying attention to greening materials through the use of carbon-based solid acids. The diverse characteristics of carbon-based solid acids can be produced through different preparation conditions and modification methods. This paper presents a comprehensive summary of the current research progress on carbon-based solid acids, encompassing common carbonization methods, such as one-step, two-step, hydrothermal, and template methods. The composition of carbon source material may be the main factor affecting its carbonization method and carbonization temperature. Additionally, acidification types including sulfonating agent, phosphoric acid, heteropoly acid, and nitric acid are explored. Furthermore, the functions of carbon-based solid acids in esterification, hydrolysis, condensation, and alkylation are thoroughly analyzed. This study concludes by addressing the existing drawbacks and outlining potential future development prospects for carbon-based solid acids in the context of their important role in sustainable chemistry and environmental preservation.

This study evaluated strategies for preventing biofilm formation on stainless steel sensor mesh screens by integrating anti-fouling approaches and applying mathematical models to stimulate biofilm elimination during anti-fouling processes. Results showed that the proposed sensor mesh housing equipped with an external low-level strength electric field effectively reduced microbial biofilm formation and mitigated sensor mesh biofouling. Additionally, the combined application of the alternating electric field and ultrasonic irradiation significantly enhanced biofilm prevention and control. Anti-fouling tests conducted in natural lake water revealed that microalgae and bacteria can form biofilms on stainless steel screen electrodes in a time-dependent manner, with the 48-h time interval being crucial for cell adhesion and biofilm formation. Moreover, the dynamic process of biofilm elimination during ultrasonic treatment was successfully simulated using different mathematic models, demonstrating their suitability for describing these anti-fouling processes. This work provides valuable insights into the protection of water-monitoring sensors and probes, and to minimize biofouling through the combined use of stainless steel mesh, electric field, and ultrasonic irradiation to ensure long-term performance of sensors in aquatic high-fouling environments.