Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is a typical tropical oil crop with a temperature of 26–28 °C, providing approximately 35% of the total world’s vegetable oil. Growth and productivity are significantly affected by low-temperature stress, resulting in inhibited growth and substantial yield losses. To comprehend the intricate molecular mechanisms underlying the response and acclimation of oil palm under low-temperature stress, multi-omics approaches, including metabolomics, proteomics, and transcriptomics, have emerged as powerful tools. This comprehensive review aims to provide an in-depth analysis of recent advancements in multi-omics studies on oil palm under low-temperature stress, including the key findings from omics-based research, highlighting changes in metabolite profiles, protein expression, and gene transcription, as well as including the potential of integrating multi-omics data to reveal novel insights into the molecular networks and regulatory pathways involved in the response to low-temperature stress. This review also emphasizes the challenges and prospects of multi-omics approaches in oil palm research, providing a roadmap for future investigations. Overall, a better understanding of the molecular basis of the response of oil palm to low-temperature stress will facilitate the development of effective breeding and biotechnological strategies to improve the crop’s resilience and productivity in changing climate scenarios.

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is a cornerstone of the economy in many countries due to its unparalleled ability to produce high yields of oil, making it a critical crop among oil-producing fruits. This review aims to elucidate the processes involved in fatty acid formation and synthesis, which are essential components of palm oil, and to examine the changes these fatty acids undergo during fruit growth and ripening. Additionally, we highlight the genes and molecular mechanisms governing fatty acid metabolism, which hold significant potential for influencing oil composition and quality. Understanding these pathways is vital, as fatty acid profiles have profound implications for both human health and industrial applications. While palm oil contains beneficial compounds, such as polyphenols and vitamin E, concerns arise from its high palmitic acid content and the formation of potentially harmful byproducts during industrial refining, such as 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters and glycidyl esters. We also explore advanced breeding methods and modern strategies to enhance oil quality and productivity, including the application of genomic tools to transfer desirable traits and expand genetic diversity in breeding programs. By integrating biochemical, genetic, and biotechnological insights, this review provides a foundation for improving palm oil production and addressing the growing demand for healthier, sustainable oil solutions.

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), a tropical crop, is highly sensitive to temperature fluctuations, with low temperatures significantly limiting its growth, development, and geographical distribution. Understanding the adaptive mechanisms of oil palm under low-temperature stress is essential for developing cold-tolerant varieties. This study focused on analyzing the physiological and metabolomic responses of annual thin-shell oil palm seedlings to low-temperature exposure (8 °C) for different time periods: 0 h (CK), 0.5 h (CD05), 1 h (CD1), 2 h (CD2), 4 h (CD4), and 8 h (CD8). Physiological analysis showed a significant increase in the activity of antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD), highlighting the activation of oxidative stress defense mechanisms. Concurrently, elevated relative conductivity, indicated cell membrane damage, a common consequence of cold-induced oxidative stress. Metabolomic profiling using LC-MS/MS revealed significant changes in metabolite composition, with differential metabolites predominately enriched in key metabolic pathways such as arginine and proline metabolism, glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism, plant hormone biosynthesis, and flavonoid biosynthesis pathways. Notable metabolites such as citric acid, L-aspartic acid, L-tryptophan, and vitexin showed significant accumulation, indicating their roles in enhancing cold tolerance through improved antioxidant defenses, promoting osmoregulation, and stabilizing cellular structures. Correlation analysis further emphasized the importance of flavonoids and plant hormones in the cold stress response. In particular, vitexin, isovitexin, and apigenin 6-C-glucoside were significantly enriched, suggesting their contribution to antioxidant and stress signaling networks. Furthermore, metabolites involved in amino acid metabolism, including L-glutamic acid, sarcosine, and proline, were upregulated, supporting enhanced protein synthesis and cellular repair under stress. This metabolic reprogramming correlated with physiological improvements, as evidenced by increased relative conductivity and post cold exposure growth recovery. This study provides critical insights into the physiological and metabolic adaptations of oil palm to cold stress, emphasizing the significant role of secondary metabolites—such as flavonoids, amino acids, and plant hormones—in enhancing cold tolerance. Theses metabolites contribute to oxidative stress protection, osmotic regulation, and cell wall stabilization enabling the plant to better withstand with low temperature condition. The findings provide a strong foundation for molecular research and breeding initiatives aimed at developing cold tolerant oil palm varieties, a crop of siginificant economic value. By combining metabolomic profiling with physiological analyses, provides a holistic understanding of the adaptive mechanisms in oil palm under cold stress.This integrated approach identifies key metabolic pathways that can be targeted in breeding programs to enhance cold resilience, paving the way for improved crop performance in challenging environments.

Oil palm, a tropical woody oil crop, is widely used in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals due to its high production efficiency and economic value. Palm oil is rich in free fatty acids, polyphenols, vitamin E, and other nutrients, which are beneficial for human health when consumed appropriately. Therefore, investigating the dynamic changes in free fatty acid content at different stages of development and hypothesizing the influence of regulatory genes on free fatty acid metabolism is crucial for improving palm oil quality and accelerating industry growth. LC-MS/MS is used to analyze the composition and content of free fatty acids in the flesh after 95 days (MS1 and MT1), 125 days (MS2 and MT2), and 185 days (MS3 and MT3) of Seedless (MS) and Tenera (MT) oil palm species fruit pollination. RNA-Seq was used to analyze the expression of genes regulating free fatty acid synthesis and accumulation, with differences in genes and metabolites mapped to the KEGG pathway map using the KEGG (Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes) enrichment analysis method. A metabolomics study identified 17 types of saturated and 13 types of unsaturated free fatty acids during the development of MS and MT. Transcriptomic research revealed that 10,804 significantly different expression genes were acquired in the set differential gene threshold between MS and MT. The results showed that FabB was positively correlated with the contents of three main free fatty acids (stearic acid, myristate acid, and palmitic acid) and negatively correlated with the contents of free palmitic acid in the flesh of MS and MT. ACSL and FATB were positively correlated with the contents of three main free fatty acids and negatively correlated with free myristate acid. The study reveals that the expression of key enzyme genes, FabB and FabF, may improve the synthesis of free myristate in oil palm flesh, while FabF, ACSL, and FATB genes may facilitate the production of free palmitoleic acid. These genes may also promote the synthesis of free stearic acid and palmitoleic acid in oil palm flesh. However, the FabB gene may inhibit stearic acid synthesis, while ACSL and FATB genes may hinder myristate acid production. This study provides a theoretical basis for improving palm oil quality.

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is a very important tropical woody oil plant with high commercial and ornamental value. The exocarp of the oil palm fruit is rich in anthocyanosides and proanthocyanidins, which not only give it a bright colour, but also mark the maturity of the fruit. The study of the dynamic change pattern of anthocyanoside content and important anthocyanoside metabolism-related regulatory genes during oil palm ripening is conducive to the improvement of the ornamental value of oil palm and the determination of the optimal harvesting period of the fruits. We analyzed the virescens oil palm (AS) and nigrescens oil palm (AT) at 95 days (AS1, AT1), 125 days (AS2, AT2) and 185 days (AS3, AT3) after pollination were used as experimental materials for determining the changes in the total amount of anthocyanins as well as their metabolomics and transcriptomics studies by using the LC-MS/MS technique and RNA-Seq technique. The results showed that the total anthocyanin content decreased significantly from AS1 (119 µg/g) to AS3 (23 µg/g), and from AT1 (1302 µg/g) to AT3 (170 µg/g), indicating a clear decreasing trend during fruit development. Among them, the higher flavonoids in AS and AT included anthocyanins such as peonidin-3-O-rutinoside (H35), pelargonidin-3-O-rutinoside (H21), and cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (H7), as well as condensed tannins such as procyanidin B2 (H47), procyanidin C1 (H49), and procyanidin B3 (H48). Notably, nine genes involved in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway exhibited up-regulated expression during the pre-development stage of oil palm fruits, particularly during the AS1 and AT1 periods. These genes include: Chalcone synthase (CHS; LOC105036364); Flavanone 3-hydroxylase (F3H; LOC105054663); Dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR; LOC105040724, LOC105048473); Anthocyanidin synthase (ANS; LOC105035842), UDP-glucose: flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase (UFGT; LOC105039612); Flavonoid 3’,5’-hydroxylase (F3’5’H; LOC105036086, LOC105044124, LOC105045493). In contrast, five genes demonstrated up-regulated expression as the fruits developed, specifically during the AS3 and AT3 periods. These genes include: Chalcone synthase (CHS; LOC105036921, LOC105035716); Chalcone isomerase (CHI; LOC105045978); UDP-glucose: flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase (UFGT; LOC105046326); Flavonoid 3’-hydroxylase (F3’H; LOC105036086). Most of differentially expressed genes exhibited up-regulation during the early stages of fruit development, which may contribute to the elevated anthocyanin content observed in oil palm fruits of both types during the pre-developmental period. Furthermore, the expression levels of most genes were found to be higher in the AT fruit type compared to the AS fruit type, suggesting that the differential expression of these genes may be a key factor underlying the differences in anthocyanoside production in the exocarp of oil palm fruits from these two fruit types. The findings of this study provide a theoretical foundation for the identification and characterization of genes involved in anthocyanin synthesis in oil palm fruits, as well as the development of novel variations using molecular biology approaches.