Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a serious health problem in the developing countries including Pakistan. Various risk factors are responsible for the spread of this infectious disease. Prevalence of HBV infection in apparently suspected individual of Punjab province of Pakistan was analyzed during January 2008 to December 2010. Current study was aimed to investigate the epidemiology and risk factors of HBV infection.

Background: Hepatitis B is an important public health problem in the Pakistani population and is the major cause of chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. High prevalence of HBV infections has been observed especially in areas of low economic status. In spite of effective immunization programs, no significant change has been observed in the epidemiology of HBV in the rural areas of Pakistan (~67.5% of the total population) mainly due to lack of interest from government authorities and poor hygienic measures. The current study was aimed at estimating the prevalence and risk factors associated with HBV infection within internally displaced persons (IDPs) due to war against terrorism in the Malakand Division of Northern Pakistan. Methods: Blood samples from 950 IDPs suspected with HBV infection (including both males and females) were collected and processed with commercial ELISA kits for HBsAg, Anti HBs, HBeAg, Anti HBe antibodies. The samples positive by ELISA were confirmed for HBV DNA by real-time PCR analysis. Results: The overall prevalence of HBV observed was 21.05% of which 78.5% were males and 21.5% were females. Most confirmed HBV patients belong to the Malakand and Dir (lower) district. High-risk of infection was found in the older subjects 29.13% (46-60 years), while a lower incidence (11.97%) was observed in children aged <15 years. Lack of awareness, socioecomic conditions, sexual activities and sharing of razor blades, syringes and tattooing needles were the most common risk factors of HBV infection observed during the cohort of patients. Conclusion: The present study, revealed for the first time a high degree of prevalence of HBV infection in rural areas of Northern Pakistan. The noticed prevalence is gender- and age-dependent that might be due to their high exposures to the common risk factors. To avoid the transmission of HBV infection proper awareness about the possible risk factors and extension of immunization to the rural areas are recommended.

This study examined the association between diabetes mellitus and tuberculosis (TB) in a cohort of 200TB-positive patients, stratified by gender, age, treatment regimen, and comorbidities, including diabetes, acute gastroenteritis, and hypertension, compared to TB patients without additional complications. Clinical parameters—Random Blood Sugar (RBS), C-reactive protein (CRP), and Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR)—were assessed at baseline and after four months of anti-TB therapy. The results showed no significant changes in mean RBS or CRP levels post-treatment, but a notable reduction in mean ESR was observed. Age and gender had minimal impact on therapeutic outcomes for RBS, CRP, or ESR, though females exhibited higher ESR values than males. Treatment regimens, whether Myrin P Forte alone or combined with streptomycin, did not significantly alter clinical parameters. However, CRP levels improved in TB patients with comorbidities, such as diabetes, hypertension, or gastroenteritis. A significant prevalence of diabetes (21.42%) was found among TB patients, with higher rates in females and those over 50 years. These findings highlight a notable association between diabetes and TB. However, the minimal effect of anti-TB therapy on clinical parameters suggests that ESR and CRP may not be reliable prognostic markers for TB. The study underscores the need for further large-scale case–control studies and molecular research to better understand the relationship between diabetes and TB, particularly given the high prevalence of diabetes among TB patients.