The NLRP3 (nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich-repeat-containing family, pyrin domain-containing 3) inflammasome senses pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), and activates caspase-1, which provokes release of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-18 as well as pyroptosis to engage in innate immune defense. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large and dynamic endomembrane compartment, critical to cellular function of organelle networks. Recent studies have unveiled the pivotal roles of the ER in NLRP3 inflammasome activation. ER–mitochondria contact sites provide a location for NLRP3 activation, its association with ligands released from or residing in mitochondria, and rapid Ca²⁺ mobilization from ER stores to mitochondria. ER-stress signaling plays a critical role in NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Lipid perturbation and cholesterol trafficking to the ER activate the NLRP3 inflammasome. These findings emphasize the importance of the ER in initiation and regulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome.

Type I interferon (IFN) induction is a critical component of innate immune response to viral and bacterial infection, including S. aureus, but whether it activates the signaling in macrophages and the regulation mechanisms is less well understood. Here we show that S. aureus infection promoted the IFN-β mRNA expression and stimulator of IFN genes (STING)/TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1)/interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3)-dependent production of IFN-β. Infection with S. aureus induced caspase recruitment domain and membrane-associated guanylate kinase-like domain protein 3 (CARMA3) expression at both the mRNA and protein levels. The heat-killed bacteria failed to trigger IRF3 phosphorylation and upregulation of CARMA3 expression. However, overexpression of CARMA3 did not affect phosphorylation of TBK1 or IRF3 in RAW264.7 cells, J774A.1 macrophages, and mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cells. In conclusion, S. aureus infection induces STING/TBK1/IRF3-mediated IFN-β production in a CARMA3-independent manner.