An alarming increase in emergence of antibiotic resistance among pathogens worldwide has become a serious threat to our ability to treat infectious diseases according to the World Health Organization. Extensive use of antibiotics by livestock producers promotes the spread of new resistant strains, some of zoonotic concern, which increases food-borne illness in humans and causes significant economic burden on healthcare systems. Furthermore, consumer preferences for meat/poultry/fish produced without the use of antibiotics shape today’s market demand. So, it is viewed as inevitable by the One Health Initiative that humans need to reduce the use of antibiotics and turn to alternative, improved means to control disease: vaccination and prophylactics. Besides the intense research focused on novel therapeutic molecules, both these strategies rely heavily on the availability of cost-effective, efficient and scalable production platforms which will allow large-volume manufacturing for vaccines, antibodies and other biopharmaceuticals. Within this context, plant-based platforms for production of recombinant therapeutic proteins offer significant advantages over conventional expression systems, including lack of animal pathogens, low production costs, fast turnaround and response times and rapid, nearly-unlimited scalability. Also, because dried leaves and seeds can be stored at room temperature for lengthy periods without loss of recombinant proteins, plant expression systems have the potential to offer lucrative benefits from the development of edible vaccines and prophylactics, as these would not require “cold chain” storage and transportation, and could be administered in mass volumes with minimal processing. Several biotechnology companies currently have developed and adopted plant-based platforms for commercial production of recombinant protein therapeutics. In this manuscript, we outline the challenges in the process of livestock immunization as well as the current plant biotechnology developments aimed to address these challenges.

Bacterial lipoproteins play crucial roles in host–pathogen interactions and pathogenesis and are important targets for the immune system. A prominent example is the outer surface protein A (OspA) of Borrelia burgdorferi, which has been efficiently used as a vaccine for the prevention of Lyme disease. In a previous study, OspA could be produced in tobacco chloroplasts in a lipidated and immunogenic form. To further explore the potential of chloroplasts for the production of bacterial lipoproteins, the role of the N‐terminal leader sequence was investigated. The amount of recombinant OspA could be increased up to ten‐fold by the variation of the insertion site in the chloroplast genome. Analysis of OspA mutants revealed that replacement of the invariant cysteine residue as well as deletion of the leader sequence abolishes palmitolyation of OspA. Also, decoration of OspA with an N‐terminal eukaryotic lipidation motif does not lead to palmitoylation in chloroplasts. Strikingly, the bacterial signal peptide of OspA efficiently targets the protein to thylakoids, and causes a mutant phenotype. Plants accumulating OspA at 10% total soluble protein could not grow without exogenously supplied sugars and rapidly died after transfer to soil under greenhouse conditions. The plants were found to be strongly affected in photosystem II, as revealed by the analyses of temporal and spatial dynamics of photosynthetic activity by chlorophyll fluorescence imaging. Thus, overexpression of OspA in chloroplasts is limited by its concentration‐dependent interference with essential functions of chloroplastic membranes required for primary metabolism.

Plastid transformation is a powerful tool for basic research, but also for the generation of stable genetically engineered plants producing recombinant proteins at high levels or for metabolic engineering purposes. However, due to the genetic makeup of plastids and the distinct features of the transformation process, vector design, and the use of specific genetic elements, a large set of basic transformation vectors is required, making cloning a tedious and time-consuming effort. Here, we describe the adoption of standardized modular cloning (GoldenBraid) to the design and assembly of the full spectrum of plastid transformation vectors. The modular design of genetic elements allows straightforward and time-efficient build-up of transcriptional units as well as construction of vectors targeting any homologous recombination site of choice. In a three-level assembly process, we established a vector fostering gene expression and formation of griffithsin, a potential viral entry inhibitor and HIV prophylactic, in the plastids of tobacco. Successful transformation as well as transcript and protein production could be shown. In concert with the aforesaid endeavor, a set of modules facilitating plastid transformation was generated, thus augmenting the GoldenBraid toolbox. In short, the work presented in this study enables efficient application of synthetic biology methods to plastid transformation in plants.