This paper investigates the technical efficiency of cereal production in European Union (EU) countries from 2008 to 2018. The primary purpose is to estimate technical efficiency scores by country and crop and explain their variation using macroeconomic and agricultural policy variables using the stochastic frontier production function. The results indicate that the United Kingdom has the highest efficiency in barley production, while Finland has the lowest. France exhibits the highest efficiency in common wheat, and Romania has the lowest efficiency in grain maize production. This study also explores the impact of various factors on technical efficiency, finding, for example, the positive effects of female wages and foreign direct investment on barley production efficiency and the negative effects of forest area and subsidies. Similar analyses were conducted for wheat and maize production. The results indicate a variation in technical efficiency scores across crops and countries. This diversity in performance not only reflects the inherent complexities within each crop but also emphasizes the crucial role played by macroeconomic variables and agricultural policies in shaping efficiency outcomes on a country-wide scale.

The goal of this study was to determine how the loss of dates affected food security in Saudi Arabia from 2000 to 2021. The researchers achieved this by using food security indicators, economic equations to quantify agricultural resource losses, and econometric analyses to develop a partial adjustment model. The results show that dates are considered a self-sufficient crop as well as an export crop, as the state resorts to exporting the surplus instead of storing it for local consumption. During the study period, there was an increase in the period of sufficiency in date production for local consumption and the period of coverage of imports for local consumption. In 2000, the volume of dates lost increased by approximately 131.22%. The total loss of land and water resources reached 31,918.4 hectares and 324.759 million cubic meters, respectively. The value of the partial adjustment coefficient (λ) indicates that about 81.1% of the imbalance in the equilibrium between the actual and equilibrium levels is adjusted within one year. Loss is considered one of the most important factors that determine food security for dates, in addition to the total value of loans financed to date factories, the total population, and the level of technological progress in the marketing and storage of dates. It was found that a change of 10% in these variables leads to a change in food security for dates of (−2.37%), 0.07, (−15.33%), and 0.58%, respectively, and the adjusted coefficient of determination was estimated at 0.93. This study recommends the following: (1) expanding the use of modern technologies for date post-harvest transportation and storage, and (2) increasing support and loans allocated to date factories to increase warehouses for cooling and storage to accommodate the increase in production and surplus consumption.

The research aims to assess fish production, consumption, self-sufficiency rates, and deficits in fish food in Saudi Arabia from 2001 to 2022. It will also evaluate local production sufficiency and import duration and analyze economic and environmental factors influencing fish food security over this period. The study employs descriptive statistical analysis to identify trends, patterns, and outliers in the data, using measures such as means, standard deviations, and growth rates. To investigate the relationships between variables, the research applies the Error Correction Model (ECM), a methodology designed to capture both short-term dynamics and long-term equilibrium relationships. The ECM analysis is supported by unit root tests (Augmented Dickey-Fuller and Phillips-Perron tests) to assess stationarity and cointegration tests to confirm stable long-term connections. Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) estimation techniques are used to derive model coefficients, while additional diagnostic tests ensure the robustness and reliability of the results. Key findings include annual growth rates of 5.8% for fish output, 4.0% for fish imports, and 4.0% for local consumption. The fish self-sufficiency rate has significantly increased at 6.7% per year. However, the fish food gap, local production sufficiency period, and proportion of imported fish consumed daily are growing at rates of 2.7%, 10.9%, and 1.6%, respectively. The error correction model indicates an error correction coefficient of approximately 0.54, statistically significant at 1%. This coefficient represents the percentage of imbalance in the food security coefficient for fish that can be adjusted yearly, with a correction period of about 1.85 years. Thus, it takes roughly 1 year and 10 months for the food security coefficient to return to equilibrium after deviations occur. Based on these findings, the report recommends three actions: increasing modern fishing vessels, funding fish farming initiatives, and reducing environmental pollution to enhance self-sufficiency and outpace population growth.

Saudi Arabia implements a wide range of non-tariff measures on imports and exports. Different research articles have quantified the effect of non-tariff measures on trade, but their effect on Saudi Arabia has not been quantified. The major objective of this paper is to quantify the effect of non-tariff measures on the imports of Saudi Arabia. Panel data from 2000 to 2022 for four major regions trading with Saudi Arabia are used to estimate the panel ARDL gravity model. The results of the bound test confirm the presence of a long-run association between the model variables. In the long-run, the per capita income of Saudi Arabia is the main determinant of imports. In contrast, in the short-run the per capita income has no influence, and the non-tariff measures have a negative effect on import value. At the cross-sectional level, the results confirm the negative effect of non-tariff measures on the selected trade partners with varying degrees. The results ascertain the detrimental effect of the application of technical and non-technical measures on Saudi Arabia’s imports. We recommend policymakers in Saudi Arabia adopt a more transparent policy of NTMs application that leads to a sustainable supply of goods and services and ensures sustainable trade.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) is a powerful tool for driving a diverse range of economic reforms and development in host countries. Yet, research on the determinants, especially in the context emerging economies, appear limited. The purpose is to study the impact of various macroeconomic variables (for example, agricultural added value, inflation, and trade openness) on FDI in Saudi Arabia from 2005 to 2020. This study uses time-series data on FDI, trade openness, agricultural added value, and inflation in Saudi Arabia. The data are on an annual basis and were obtained from the World Bank Indicators for the period 2005–2020. The paper used Vector Autoregression Model and Granger Causality Test to determine the results.The finding indicates that the first lag of FDI, agricultural added value, and trade openness have a statistically significant effect on FDI. The first lag for inflation, on the other hand, has no impact on FDI. The Granger causality test findings show that FDI Granger-causes agricultural added value and vice-versa, FDI Granger-causes trade openness and vice-versa, but inflation does not Granger-cause FDI.The results suggest that there is a two-way causal relationship between agricultural added value and trade openness with FDI, so governments of developing countries should focus on creating a trade-friendly environment.The paper contributes to the literature by providing empirical evidence on the determinants of FDI in Saudi Arabia, highlighting the significant impact of agricultural added value and trade openness on FDI, and emphasizing the importance of fostering a trade-friendly environment for attracting FDI in emerging economies.