Mitogen‐activated protein (MAP) kinases bind tightly to many of their physiologically relevant substrates. We have identified a new subfamily of murine serine/threonine kinases, whose members, MAP kinase‐interacting kinase 1 (Mnk1) and Mnk2, bind tightly to the growth factor‐regulated MAP kinases, Erk1 and Erk2. Mnk1, but not Mnk2, also binds strongly to the stress‐activated kinase, p38. Mnk1 complexes more strongly with inactive than active Erk, implying that Mnk and Erk may dissociate after mitogen stimulation. Erk and p38 phosphorylate Mnk1 and Mnk2, which stimulates their in vitro kinase activity toward a substrate, eukaryotic initiation factor‐4E (eIF‐4E). Initiation factor eIF‐4E is a regulatory phosphoprotein whose phosphorylation is increased by insulin in an Erk‐dependent manner. In vitro , Mnk1 rapidly phosphorylates eIF‐4E at the physiologically relevant site, Ser209. In cells, Mnk1 is post‐translationally modified and enzymatically activated in response to treatment with either peptide growth factors, phorbol esters, anisomycin or UV. Mitogen‐ and stress‐mediated Mnk1 activation is blocked by inhibitors of MAP kinase kinase 1 (Mkk1) and p38, demonstrating that Mnk1 is downstream of multiple MAP kinases. Mnk1 may define a convergence point between the growth factor‐activated and one of the stress‐activated protein kinase cascades and is a candidate to phosphorylate eIF‐4E in cells.

Elongation factor 2 kinase (eEF2k) phosphorylates and inactivates eEF2. Insulin induces dephosphorylation of eEF2 and inactivation of eEF2 kinase, and these effects are blocked by rapamycin, which inhibits the mammalian target of rapamycin, mTOR. However, the signalling mechanisms underlying these effects are unknown. Regulation of eEF2 phosphorylation and eEF2k activity is lost in cells in which phosphoinositide‐dependent kinase 1 (PDK1) has been genetically knocked out. This is not due to loss of mTOR function since phosphorylation of another target of mTOR, initiation factor 4E‐binding protein 1, is not defective. PDK1 is required for activation of members of the AGC kinase family; we show that two such kinases, p70 S6 kinase (regulated via mTOR) and p90^RSK1 (activated by Erk), phosphorylate eEF2k at a conserved serine and inhibit its activity. In response to insulin‐like growth factor 1, which activates p70 S6 kinase but not Erk, regulation of eEF2 is blocked by rapamycin. In contrast, regulation of eEF2 by stimuli that activate Erk is insensitive to rapamycin, but blocked by inhibitors of MEK/Erk signalling, consistent with the involvement of p90^RSK1.

Signaling through mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is activated by amino acids, insulin, and growth factors, and impaired by nutrient or energy deficiency. mTOR plays key roles in cell physiology. mTOR regulates numerous components involved in protein synthesis, including initiation and elongation factors, and the biogenesis of ribosomes themselves.

The occurrence of obesity has increased across the whole world. Many epidemiological studies have indicated that obesity strongly contributes to the development of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, liver diseases and other disorders, accounting for a heavy burden on the public and on health-care systems every year. Excess energy uptake induces adipocyte hypertrophy, hyperplasia and formation of visceral fat in other non-adipose tissues to evoke cardiovascular disease, liver diseases. Adipose tissue can also secrete adipokines and inflammatory cytokines to affect the local microenvironment, induce insulin resistance, hyperglycemia, and activate associated inflammatory signaling pathways. This further exacerbates the development and progression of obesity-associated diseases. Although some progress in the treatment of obesity has been achieved in preclinical and clinical studies, the progression and pathogenesis of obesity-induced diseases are complex and unclear. We still need to understand their links to better guide the treatment of obesity and associated diseases. In this review, we review the links between obesity and other diseases, with a view to improve the future management and treatment of obesity and its co-morbidities.

Recent advances in our understanding of both the regulation of components of the translational machinery and the upstream signalling pathways that modulate them have provided important new insights into the mechanisms by which hormones, growth factors, nutrients and cellular energy status control protein synthesis in mammalian cells. The importance of proper control of mRNA translation is strikingly illustrated by the fact that defects in this process or its control are implicated in a number of disease states, such as cancer, tissue hypertrophy and neurodegeneration. Signalling pathways such as those involving mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) and mitogen-activated protein kinases modulate the phosphorylation of translation factors, the activities of the protein kinases that act upon them and the association of RNA-binding proteins with specific mRNAs. These effects contribute both to the overall control of protein synthesis (which is linked to cell growth) and to the modulation of the translation or stability of specific mRNAs. However, important questions remain about both the contributions of individual regulatory events to the control of general protein synthesis and the mechanisms by which the translation of specific mRNAs is controlled.