Background and Aims: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is projected to cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050 if left unaddressed, posing a severe threat to global health and modern medicine. This review analyzes the molecular and ecological mechanisms underlying antibiotic resistance and evaluates global efforts aimed at containment to identify actionable strategies to mitigate AMR's escalating impact. Methods: A systematic literature review was performed using databases including PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, focusing on peer‐reviewed studies from 2000 to 2024. Search terms included “antibiotic resistance,” “resistance mechanisms,” “horizontal gene transfer,” and “AMR epidemiology.” A total of 152 articles were selected based on predefined inclusion criteria relevant to resistance mechanisms, epidemiological data, clinical outcomes, and public health interventions. Results: Findings underscore three dominant resistance pathways: target site modification, enzymatic degradation (e.g., β‐lactamases), and horizontal gene transfer via plasmids and transposons. Notably, resistance to last‐resort antibiotics (e.g., colistin, carbapenems) is rising in pathogens such as Klebsiella pneumoniae and Acinetobacter baumannii , with treatment failure rates exceeding 50% in some regions. Surveillance gaps and unregulated antibiotic use, especially in LMICs, further accelerate resistance spread. Only a limited number of new antibiotic classes have been approved since 2010, underscoring the innovation gap. Conclusion: AMR is a quantifiable, escalating crisis that undermines decades of progress in infectious disease control. Tackling it requires coordinated action: strengthening antimicrobial stewardship, incentivizing antibiotic R&D, integrating environmental and clinical surveillance under One Health frameworks, and implementing global policy reforms. Without prompt action, AMR could surpass cancer in annual mortality by mid‐century.

Introduction: Gut microbiota has emerged as a pivotal player in cardiovascular health and disease, extending its influence beyond the gut through intricate metabolic processes and interactions with the immune system. Accumulating evidence supports a significant association between gut microbiota and cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, and heart failure. Dietary patterns have been identified as key factors shaping the composition of the gut microbiota and exerting notable impacts on cardiovascular health. Probiotics and prebiotics have shown promise in mitigating the risks of cardiovascular disease by modulating key cardiovascular parameters. Faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) has recently emerged as a novel and intriguing therapeutic strategy. Aim: This review paper aims to explore and elucidate the multifaceted role of gut microbiota in cardiovascular health. It will also address the prevailing challenges and limitations in gut microbiota studies, emphasizing the importance of future research in overcoming these obstacles to expand our understanding of the gut-heart axis. Materials and methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted using various databases including ClinicalTrials, Google Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, MEDLINE, and Ovid Resources. The search strategy included utilizing keywords such as “Gut microbiota,” “Randomized controlled trials (RCTs),” “Gut-heart axis,” “Dysbiosis,” “Diet,” “Probiotics,” “Prebiotics,” “Faecal Microbiota transplantation,” “cardiovascular disease,” “Meta-analyses,” and other compatible terms thereof. Only articles written in English were considered, and selection criteria included relevance to the research objectives, reasonable sample sizes, and robust methodology. In addition to the identified articles, meta-analyses, animal models and studies, and references from the selected articles were also examined to ensure a comprehensive review of the literature. Results: Dietary patterns exert a significant influence on the composition of the gut microbiota, and certain diets, such as the Mediterranean diet, have been associated with a favourable gut microbiota profile and a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Probiotics and prebiotics have emerged as potential interventions to mitigate CVD risks by modulating blood pressure, glycemic control, lipid profiles, and gut dysbiosis. Another innovative therapeutic approach is FMT, which involves transferring faecal material from a healthy donor to restore a balanced gut microbiota. FMT holds promise for improving cardiometabolic parameters in individuals with CVD, although further research is needed to elucidate its precise mechanisms and assess its effectiveness. Conclusion: The gut microbiota is emerging as a potential therapeutic target for CVD prevention and management. However, current research has limitations, including the need for larger and more diverse studies, the challenges of establishing causality, and concerns regarding the long-term consequences and safety of gut microbiota modulation. Despite these limitations, understanding the gut-heart axis holds promise for the development of personalized therapies and interventions for cardiovascular health. Further research is needed to expand our knowledge and address the ethical and safety issues associated with gut microbiota modification.

Introduction: CVDs is a leading cause of morbidity, mortality, and healthcare expenditure worldwide. Identifying individuals at risk or in the incipient stages of disease is instrumental in enabling timely interventions, preventive measures, and tailored treatment regimens. The landscape of CVDs is complicated by their heterogeneity, encompassing a spectrum of conditions such as coronary artery disease, heart failure, arrhythmias, and valvular disorders. In recent years, the integration of biomarkers into cardiovascular medicine has emerged as a paradigm‐shifting approach with the potential to revolutionize early detection and risk stratification. By synthesizing a multitude of studies, we aim to provide a comprehensive resource that illuminates the transformative potential of biomarkers in ushering in a new era of precision cardiovascular medicine. Aim: To identify the biomarkers for the detection and diagnosis of CVDs. Materials and Methods: This review examines key studies from 2015 to the present that investigate the impact of cardiac biomarkers on cardiovascular outcomes. Data were gathered from PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Embase to ensure a comprehensive analysis. The review focuses on various cardiac biomarkers, assessing their levels and changes in relation to cardiovascular health, with special emphasis on advanced biomarkers such as proteomic and metabolomic markers in cardiovascular disease (CVD) diagnosis. Peer‐reviewed studies published in English that evaluated the diagnostic, prognostic, or therapeutic role of cardiac biomarkers were included, with priority given to clinical trials, cohort studies, systematic reviews, and meta‐analyses providing quantitative biomarker data. Studies unrelated to cardiac biomarkers, case reports, editorials, conference abstracts, and those with small sample sizes or insufficient methodological rigor were excluded. The review also accounts for potential confounding factors and research limitations, ensuring a balanced assessment of the literature. By synthesizing data from academic papers, clinical reports, and research articles, this study provides a comprehensive evaluation of the evolving role of cardiac biomarkers in CVD diagnosis and risk stratification. Results: Biomarkers play a pivotal role in cardiovascular disease risk prediction, diagnosis, and treatment by providing dynamic biological insights. High‐sensitivity cardiac troponins (hs‐cTn) enhance myocardial injury detection, while circulating microRNAs (miR‐208, miR‐499) serve as early indicators of myocardial infarction and heart failure. Lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] predicts long‐term cardiovascular risk, and inflammatory biomarkers such as C‐reactive protein (CRP) and interleukin‐6 (IL‐6) are linked to adverse outcomes. Multi‐biomarker panels, such as hs‐cTn with B‐type natriuretic peptide (BNP), improve heart failure prognosis, while metabolomic profiling enables precision medicine. Additionally, biomarkers like BNP and NT‐proBNP facilitate real‐time therapeutic monitoring. These findings underscore the critical role of biomarkers in refining risk stratification, improving diagnostic accuracy, and enabling personalized treatment strategies in cardiovascular medicine. Conclusion: The advancement of cardiovascular biomarkers has significantly enhanced early detection, risk stratification, and personalized treatment. Emerging biomarkers, including genetic variants, metabolomics, microRNAs, and imaging‐based markers, provide deeper insights into disease mechanisms. Integrating multi‐omic approaches with artificial intelligence may further refine predictive accuracy and therapeutic decision‐making. However, clinical translation requires rigorous validation through large‐scale, multicenter studies to ensure reliability and applicability across diverse populations. Standardization, cost‐effectiveness assessments, and the development of biomarker panels are essential for clinical adoption. Future research should focus on bridging discovery and implementation, advancing precision medicine to improve cardiovascular outcomes.

Cholera outbreaks cause significant disease burden, especially in developing countries. While the disease is largely eliminated in developed countries, it still remains a huge burden to Sub-Saharan Africa. Lack of access to clean water, hygiene and sanitation facilities remains a huge risk factor for disease transmission and persistence. These outbreaks in Africa are usually associated with high case fatality rates. While many risk factors exist for the spread of the disease, climate change poses a huge challenge to the fight and spread of the disease. Most countries in southern Africa including Malawi and Mozambique have been experiencing the direct and indirect impact of climate change. Climate change can affect the epidemiological dynamics of multiple infectious agents, including vector-borne, water-borne, and food-borne pathogens. The aftermaths effects of flooding and droughts can largely be felt in seasonality changes in the spread of Cholera. Having an in-depth understanding of multiple factors that influence the patterns of spread of climate change related diseases combined with robust surveillance systems could help detect environmental changes in high-risk areas and result in early public health interventions that can alleviate potential outbreaks.

Introduction: PCSK9 inhibitors are a novel class of medications that lower LDL cholesterol (LDL‐C) by increasing LDL receptor activity, promoting clearance of LDL‐C from the bloodstream. Over the years, PCSK9 inhibitors have been explored as adjunct therapies to statins or as monotherapy in high‐risk cardiovascular patients.Aim: This review aims to provide an updated perspective on PCSK9 inhibitors, assessing their clinical efficacy, safety, and significance, especially in light of recent clinical trials.Methods: The review examines the role of PCSK9 in cholesterol regulation and summarizes the results of major cardiovascular trials, including FOURIER, SPIRE‐1, SPIRE‐2, and ODYSSEY Outcomes. It also discusses emerging treatments like small interfering RNA (siRNA) therapies and evaluates PCSK9 inhibitor effects on LDL‐C and lipoprotein(a) levels.Results: Clinical trials have shown PCSK9 inhibitors reduce LDL‐C by up to 60%. In the FOURIER trial, evolocumab reduced LDL‐C by 59% and major cardiovascular events by 15%–20%. The SPIRE‐2 trial, despite early termination, showed a 21% risk reduction in the primary composite endpoint with bococizumab. The ODYSSEY Outcomes trial reported a 57% LDL‐C reduction with alirocumab, alongside a 15% reduction in adverse events. Emerging treatments like Inclisiran offer long‐term LDL‐C control with fewer doses. PCSK9 inhibitors are generally well‐tolerated, with the most common side effect being injection site reactions.Conclusion: PCSK9 inhibitors significantly lower LDL‐C and reduce cardiovascular events, offering promising therapies for high‐risk patients, including those with familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) and those who cannot tolerate statins. Future research will focus on optimizing these inhibitors, integrating complementary therapies, and exploring gene‐editing technologies to improve patient outcomes.