Piper betle leaf powder is increasingly utilised as a health supplement. In this study, P. betle leaves were subjected to four different drying methods: convective air-drying, oven-drying, sun-drying, and no drying, with fresh leaves as control. Their antioxidant properties were then evaluated using colourimetric assays and GC-MS. Results showed that the sun-dried leaves had the highest (p < 0.05) total antioxidant capacity (66.23 ± 0.10 mg AAE/g), total polyphenol content (133.93 ± 3.76 mg GAE/g), total flavonoid content (81.25 ± 3.26 mg CE/g) and DPPH radical scavenging activity (56.48 ± 0.11%), and the lowest alkaloid content (45.684 ± 0.265 mg/gm). GC-MS analysis revealed that major constituents of aqueous extracts of fresh and sun-dried P. betle leaves were hydrazine 1,2-dimethyl-; ethyl aminomethylformimidate; glycerin; propanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-, methyl ester, (+/−)-; and 1,2-Cyclopentanedione. In conclusion, sun-dried leaves exhibited overall better antioxidant properties, and their aqueous extracts contained biologically active phytoconstituents that have uses in various fields.

Critically sized bone defects remain a global health and economic burden, and biomaterials associated with stem cell therapy have been widely applied as a significant strategy for bone regeneration. Due to limitations related to cell survivability, immune rejection, and transplantation at the defective bone site, the improved therapeutic outcomes of stem cells are achieved through paracrine actions, which involve the secretion of extracellular vesicles (EVs) and/or other factors. Ultra-small, nano-sized exosomes (Exos) of endosomal origin have demonstrated promising potential for bone regeneration through partially revealed intercellular communication. However, the real-time feasibility before clinical trials remains unknown. The current report aims to provide an overview of the various stem cell-derived exosomes in treating bone and cartilage defects, including osteoarthritis (OA) and osteochondral defect (OCD), and optimize the yield of Exos with enhanced tissue engineering potentials. Additionally, the encapsulation of Exos with various bioactive molecules to enhance therapeutic efficacy, their functionalization with biocompatible scaffolds to promote sustained release in the defective cellular microenvironment, and the molecular functions of Exos were investigated.

Angiogenesis is a spatially regulated hallmark of colorectal cancer (CRC) progression, yet current analytical frameworks fail to resolve how nutraceutical bioactive compounds interact with angiogenic signalling within the heterogeneous tumour microenvironment. This review advances a central hypothesis: that the spatial localisation of palm oil mill effluent (POME)-derived bioactive compounds within CRC tumour tissues is predictive of their functional anti-angiogenic activity. POME—the largest waste stream of palm oil processing—contains a chemically diverse array of bioactives, including tocotrienols, phenolics, carotenoids, and fatty acids, with reported antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-angiogenic properties. However, the existing evidence is predominantly derived from bulk in vitro analyses, limiting mechanistic conclusions about compound behaviour within spatially organised tumour architectures. To address this gap, we propose an integrated framework positioning mass spectrometry imaging (MSI)—across matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation (MALDI), desorption electrospray ionisation (DESI), and secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) platforms—as the analytical bridge between compound localisation and angiogenic function. By enabling the label-free, spatially resolved co-localisation of POME-derived compounds with key angiogenic mediators, including VEGF, HIF-1α, and NF-κB, within intact CRC tissues, MSI provides a mechanistic platform that transcends the limitations of conventional molecular analyses. A four-component translational roadmap is outlined, encompassing POME bioactive profiling, spatial compound mapping, angiogenic co-localisation analysis, and functional validation. Critically, the existing evidence on oil palm-derived bioactives is appraised with respect to study quality, mechanistic depth, and translational limitations, identifying the most analytically tractable candidate compounds for spatial investigation. Collectively, this framework positions POME valorisation within a precision nutraceutical oncology paradigm, offering a spatially informed strategy for anti-angiogenic intervention in CRC while simultaneously addressing the environmental burden of palm oil processing waste.