The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) plays a multifunctional role in lipid biosynthesis, calcium storage, protein folding, and processing. Thus, maintaining ER homeostasis is essential for cellular functions. Several pathophysiological conditions and pharmacological agents are known to disrupt ER homeostasis, thereby, causing ER stress. The cells react to ER stress by initiating an adaptive signaling process called the unfolded protein response (UPR). However, the ER initiates death signaling pathways when ER stress persists. ER stress is linked to several diseases, such as cancer, obesity, and diabetes. Thus, its regulation can provide possible therapeutic targets for these. Current evidence suggests that chronic hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia linked to type II diabetes disrupt ER homeostasis, thereby, resulting in irreversible UPR activation and cell death. Despite progress in understanding the pathophysiology of the UPR and ER stress, to date, the mechanisms of ER stress in relation to type II diabetes remain unclear. This review provides up-to-date information regarding the UPR, ER stress mechanisms, insulin dysfunction, oxidative stress, and the therapeutic potential of targeting specific ER stress pathways.

Hymenodictyon floribundum is a common shrub in Africa that has been used traditionally in the treatment of pain and inflammatory diseases. In this study, the anti-inflammatory activity of the ethanol leaf extract of Hymenodictyon floribundum (EEHF) in rats was studied following phytochemical screening and LD50 determination. The inflammatory activity of EEHF (375, 750 and 1500 mg/kg p.o) was evaluated using carrageenan-induced inflammation model in rats. The preliminary phytochemical screening of the extract revealed the presence of flavonoids, tannins, saponins, steroids glycosides, anthraquinones and phenols. The oral median lethal dose (LD50) of the extract in rats was found to be greater than 5,000 mg/kg body weight. The result of this research revealed the ability of the extract to significantly (p<0.05) reduce paw oedema at the highest used doses, thus supporting the ethnomedicinal claims of the plant for the management of inflammatory conditions.