Airborne Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are known to have strong and adverse impacts on human health and the environment by contributing to the formation of tropospheric ozone. VOCs can escape during various stages of crude oil processing, from extraction to refinery, hence the crude oil industry is recognised as one of the major sources of VOC release into the environment. In the last few decades, volatile emissions from crude oil have been investigated either directly by means of laboratory and field-based analyses, or indirectly via emission inventories (EIs) which have been used to develop regulatory and controlling measures in the petroleum industry. There is a vast amount of scattered data in the literature for both regional emissions from crude oil processing and scientific measurements of VOC releases. This paper aims to provide a critical analysis of the overall scale of global emissions of VOCs from all stages of oil processing based on data reported in the literature. The volatile compounds, identified via EIs of the crude oil industry or through direct emissions from oil mass, are collected and analysed to present a global-scale evaluation of type, average concentration and detection frequency of the most prevalent VOCs. We provide a critical analysis on the total averages of VOCs and key pieces of evidence which highlights the necessity of implementing control measures to regulate crude oil volatile emissions (CVEs) in primary steps of extraction-to-refinery pathways of crude oil processing. We have identified knowledge gaps in this field which are of importance to control the release of VOCs from crude oil, independent of oil type, location, operating conditions and metrological parameters.

Photocatalytic technology has emerged as a promising solution to global water contamination, mainly through the effective degradation of persistent pharmaceutical pollutants. However, a few challenges still exist in enhancing degradation efficiency, reducing the toxicity of by-products, and ensuring cost-effective scalability. This study focuses on Tetracycline Hydrochloride (TCH) as an index antibiotic pollutant to evaluate the performance of a novel MXene-derived TiO₂-supported SiO₂/ Ti₃C₂ composite (SMXT) synthesised using ultrasonic and wet impregnation techniques. The SMXT-450 sample, annealed at 450°C, exhibited a remarkable 95% degradation of TCH within 80 minutes, surpassing more complex three-component systems. The superior photocatalytic activities, validated through comprehensive characterisation tests, were found to stem from an optimised band gap, minimised electron-hole recombination, and enhanced charge transfer. The effective degradation process, primarily driven by •O₂⁻ and •OH radicals, was confirmed by trapping and ESR analysis. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and toxicity assessments also revealed that the intermediate degradation products are less harmful, further demonstrating the environmental sustainability of the formulated nanocomposites in treating antibiotic-polluted waters. This study's findings can highlight the potential of MXene-derived nanocomposites for the efficient remediation of antibiotic-contaminated water, offering a cost-effective and scalable approach to mitigating the impact of pharmaceutical pollutants on aquatic ecosystems.