Aims. We investigate the fueling and the feedback of star formation and nuclear activity in NGC 1068, a nearby (D = 14 Mpc) Seyfert 2 barred galaxy, by analyzing the distribution and kinematics of the molecular gas in the disk. We aim to understand if and how gas accretion can self-regulate.Methods. We have used the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) to map the emission of a set of dense molecular gas (n(H2) ≃ 105 − 6 cm-3) tracers (CO(3–2), CO(6–5), HCN(4–3), HCO+(4–3), and CS(7–6)) and their underlying continuum emission in the central r ~ 2 kpc of NGC 1068 with spatial resolutions ~0.3″ − 0.5″ (~20–35 pc for the assumed distance of D = 14 Mpc). Results. The sensitivity and spatial resolution of ALMA give an unprecedented detailed view of the distribution and kinematics of the dense molecular gas (n(H2) ≥ 105 − 6cm-3) in NGC 1068. Molecular line and dust continuum emissions are detected from a r ~ 200 pc off-centered circumnuclear disk (CND), from the 2.6 kpc-diameter bar region, and from the r ~ 1.3 kpc starburst (SB) ring. Most of the emission in HCO+, HCN, and CS stems from the CND. Molecular line ratios show dramatic order-of-magnitude changes inside the CND that are correlated with the UV/X-ray illumination by the active galactic nucleus (AGN), betraying ongoing feedback. We used the dust continuum fluxes measured by ALMA together with NIR/MIR data to constrain the properties of the putative torus using CLUMPY models and found a torus radius of 20+6 -10pc. The Fourier decomposition of the gas velocity field indicates that rotation is perturbed by an inward radial flow in the SB ring and the bar region. However, the gas kinematics from r ~ 50 pc out to r ~ 400 pc reveal a massive (M mol~ 2.7+0.9 -1.2 × 107 M ⊙) outflow in all molecular tracers. The tight correlation between the ionized gas outflow, the radio jet, and the occurrence of outward motions in the disk suggests that the outflow is AGN driven.Conclusions. The molecular outflow is likely launched when the ionization cone of the narrow line region sweeps the nuclear disk. The outflow rate estimated in the CND, dM/dt~ 63+21 -37 M ⊙ yr-1, is an order of magnitude higher than the star formation rate at these radii, confirming that the outflow is AGN driven. The power of the AGN is able to account for the estimated momentum and kinetic luminosity of the outflow. The CND mass load rate of the CND outflow implies a very short gas depletion timescale of ≤1 Myr. The CND gas reservoir is likely replenished on longer timescales by efficient gas inflow from the outer disk.

We used the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) to map the emission of the CO(6–5) molecular line and the 432 μm continuum emission from the 300 pc sized circumnuclear disk (CND) of the nearby Seyfert 2 galaxy NGC 1068 with a spatial resolution of ∼4 pc. These observations spatially resolve the CND and, for the first time, image the dust emission, the molecular gas distribution, and the kinematics from a 7–10 pc diameter disk that represents the submillimeter counterpart of the putative torus of NGC 1068. We fitted the nuclear spectral energy distribution of the torus using ALMA and near- and mid-infrared (NIR/MIR) data with CLUMPY torus models. The mass and radius of the best-fit solution for the torus are both consistent with the values derived from the ALMA data alone: M gas torus = ( 1 ± 0.3 ) × 10 5 M ☉ and R _torus = 3.5 ± 0.5 pc. The dynamics of the molecular gas in the torus show strong non-circular motions and enhanced turbulence superposed on a surprisingly slow rotation pattern of the disk. By contrast with the nearly edge-on orientation of the H₂O megamaser disk, we found evidence suggesting that the molecular torus is less inclined (i = 34°–66°) at larger radii. The lopsided morphology and complex kinematics of the torus could be the signature of the Papaloizou–Pringle instability, long predicted to likely drive the dynamical evolution of active galactic nuclei tori.

Growing supermassive black holes (Active Galactic Nuclei; AGN) release energy with the potential to alter their host galaxies and larger-scale environment; a process named “AGN feedback”. Feedback is a required component of galaxy formation models and simulations to explain the observed properties of galaxy populations. We provide a broad overview of observational approaches that are designed to establish the physical processes that couple AGN energy to the multi-phase gas, or to find evidence that AGN impact upon galaxy evolution. The orders-of-magnitude range in spatial, temporal, and temperature scales, requires a diverse set of observational studies. For example, studying individual targets in detail sheds light on coupling mechanisms; however, evidence for the long-term impact of AGN is better established within galaxy populations that are not necessarily currently active. We emphasise how modern surveys have revealed the importance of radio emission for identifying and characterising feedback mechanisms. At the achieved sensitivities, the detected radio emission can trace a range of processes, including a shocked interstellar medium caused by AGN outflows (driven by various mechanisms including radiation pressure, accretion disc winds, and jets). We also describe how interpreting observations in the context of theoretical work can be challenging, in part, due to some of the adopted terminology.

Aims. We investigate the fueling and the feedback of nuclear activity in the nearby (D = 14 Mpc) Seyfert 2 barred galaxy NGC 1068 by studying the distribution and kinematics of molecular gas in the torus and its connections to the host galaxy disk. Methods. We used the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA ) to image the emission of a set of molecular gas tracers in the circumnuclear disk (CND) and the torus of the galaxy using the CO(2–1), CO(3–2), and HCO⁺(4–3) lines and their underlying continuum emission with high spatial resolutions (0.03″ − 0.09″ ≃ 2 − 6 pc). These transitions, which span a wide range of physical conditions of molecular gas (n(H₂)⊂10³ − 10⁷ cm⁻³), are instrumental in revealing the density radial stratification and the complex kinematics of the gas in the torus and its surroundings. Results. The ALMA images resolve the CND as an asymmetric ringed disk of D ≃ 400 pc in size and ≃1.4 × 10⁸ M_⊙ in mass. The CND shows a marked deficit of molecular gas in its central ≃130 pc region. The inner edge of the ring is associated with the presence of edge-brightened arcs of NIR polarized emission, which are identified with the current working surface of the ionized wind of the active galactic nucleus (AGN). ALMA proves the existence of an elongated molecular disk/torus in NGC 1068 of M_torus^gas ≃ 3 × 10⁵ M_⊙, which extends over a large range of spatial scales D ≃ 10 − 30 pc around the central engine. The new observations evidence the density radial stratification of the torus: the HCO⁺(4–3) torus, with a full size D_{HCO⁺(4 − 3)} = 11 ± 0.6 pc, is a factor of between two and three smaller than its CO(2–1) and CO(3–2) counterparts, which have full sizes of D_{CO(3 − 2)} = 26 ± 0.6 pc and D_{CO(2 − 1)} = 28 ± 0.6 pc, respectively. This result brings into light the many faces of the molecular torus. The torus is connected to the CND through a network of molecular gas streamers detected inside the CND ring. The kinematics of molecular gas show strong departures from circular motions in the torus, the gas streamers, and the CND ring. These velocity field distortions are interconnected and are part of a 3D outflow that reflects the effects of AGN feedback on the kinematics of molecular gas across a wide range of spatial scales around the central engine. In particular, we estimate through modeling that a significant fraction of the gas inside the torus (≃ 0.4 − 0.6 × M_torus^gas) and a comparable amount of mass along the gas streamers are outflowing. However, the bulk of the mass, momentum, and energy of the molecular outflow of NGC 1068 is contained at larger radii in the CND region, where the AGN wind and the radio jet are currently pushing the gas assembled at the Inner Lindblad Resonance (ILR) ring of the nuclear stellar bar. Conclusions. In our favored scenario a wide-angle AGN wind launched from the accretion disk of NGC1068 is currently impacting a sizable fraction of the gas inside the torus. However, a large gas reservoir (≃1.2 − 1.8 × 10⁵ M_⊙), which lies close to the equatorial plane of the torus, remains unaffected by the feedback of the AGN wind and can therefore continue fueling the AGN for at least ≃1 − 4 Myr. Nevertheless, AGN fueling currently seems thwarted on intermediate scales (15 pc ≤r ≤ 50 pc).