This article presents research results on the share of coal in the energy mix and the impact of clean coal technologies on Poland’s energy mix. Two mathematical models were utilised: the Boltzmann sigmoidal curve and a supervised machine learning model that employs multiple regressions. Eight explanatory variables were incorporated into the model, the influence of which on the explained variable was confirmed by Student’s t-test. The constructed models were verified using ex post errors and the Durbin–Watson and Shapiro–Wilk statistical tests. It was observed that the share of coal in the mix decreased more dynamically after 2015 compared to previous years. Furthermore, a simulation was conducted using the machine learning model, which confirmed the hypothesis on the influence of clean coal technologies on the level of coal share in the Poland energy production structure. As shown by the analysis and simulation, coal could be maintained in the energy mixes of EU countries, and even if the negative aspects of using this fuel were limited—primarily the emission of harmful substances—its share could even increase. It was noted that this share could be higher by 22% assuming a return to the interest in CCT levels from before 2015 and the reduction in CO₂ emissions using membrane techniques proposed by the authors. Clean coal technologies would enable diversification of the energy mix, which is an important aspect of energy security. They would also enable the gradual introduction of renewable energy sources or other energy sources, which would facilitate the transition stage on the way to a sustainable energy mix.

The complexity of modern security systems requires comprehensive (holistic) research methods thatnot only reduce complexity but also maintain high diagnostic power. The author addresses theproblem area of security system structures, which can be classified as the scientific discipline ofsecurity engineering. A pre-research theory strategy and a deformation method and abstractiontechnique were applied, based on the existing meaning of specific primary concepts and axioms ofaction system theory. It was assumed that every security system, which is an example of an actionsystem, is composed of layers. Based on his conclusions, the author distinguished the human,organisational and technical layers. The main research problem is of a praxeological nature and isexpressed in the following question: what types of security system configurations can be distinguishedon the basis of action system theory? The result is a description of four basic types of security systemarchitecture: unification, coordination, replication, and diversification.

Purpose. To develop a model and construct an experimental, innovative co-generator with high energy efficiency and low emissions. This involves developing a system that can efficiently generate both electricity and heat simultaneously while minimizing emissions, contributing to sustainability efforts, and addressing energy demands in a more environmentally friendly manner. Methodology. To achieve the goal, a system approach is utilized, enabling the selection of modelling types for the development of an experimental, cutting-edge co-generation system capable of efficiently producing both electricity and heat with superior energy efficiency and minimal emissions. For this purpose, the following steps were completed: processing and summarizing available literature and patent sources, analysing scientific and technical papers on the selection and application of modelling types in co-generation systems, and considering principles and individual approaches to input data formation for mathematical modelling. This process enables the selection of a mechanism and the creation of simulation models for effective energy production at various enterprises. Findings. Assessment is performed of the energy efficiency of the co-generator system under various operating conditions, comparing it with existing conventional methods of electricity and heat generation. Results are presented of performance testing to determine the system’s capability to simultaneously generate electricity and heat efficiently, considering factors such as output stability, load responsiveness, and overall reliability. Identification and evaluation are performed of innovative technologies and methodologies integrated into the co-generator design, highlighting their effectiveness in enhancing energy efficiency and reducing emissions. Insights into any operational challenges encountered during the construction, testing, and optimization phases, along with proposed solutions or improvements to solve these problems. The analysis of the overall environmental impact of deploying the co-generator showed potential benefits in terms of reduced greenhouse gas emissions and local air quality improvement. Originality. Using a combination of scientific approaches encompassing physics and heat transfer engineering, in accordance with the first law of thermodynamics, such as the conservation laws of energy and entropy, and principles of heat exchange employed to transfer heat between different mediums, gas kinetics have yielded values for the energy transformation coefficient, indicating qualitative characteristics of fuel thermolysis and power generation as the final product. Practical value. The results provide for developing a comprehensive model of an advanced co-generation system capable of efficiently producing both electricity and heat with superior energy efficiency and minimal emissions. It also entails determining the types of models for mathematical modelling at all management levels and establishing a new method for input data formation for both technologies and their subsystems, incorporating additional technological implementations.

This article presents the potential for maliciously influencing a control system by interfering with the program code of an industrial controller, using a temperature control system for a heating process based on resistive electric heating as an example. The presented attack scenarios are crucial for the energy efficiency of electric heating systems, which is related to the issue of cybersecurity in the area of energy security. The aim of this research was to demonstrate that a cyberattack involving the malicious manipulation of the setpoint can be carried out in a manner invisible to the heating process operator and be difficult to detect using classical time-domain control quality indicators (time-response specifications). The first involves incorporating proportional elements with mutually inverted gains into the input and output of a closed-loop system. The second method is based on adding an additional transfer function G_m(s) in parallel to the control system. The difference between the correct and manipulated setpoints is introduced into the input, and the output signal is added to the actual (hidden) value of the controlled variable. In the first method, at the moment of starting the control system, there is a difference between the apparent (falsified) value and the ambient temperature. In the second method, the inclusion of an additional G_m(s) ensures that the apparent (falsified) value of the controlled variable matches the temperature at the moment of starting the system. PID control enables achieving satisfactory control quality in heating processes, which are characterized by high inertia and time delays. Compared to classical PID regulation, advanced control methods can, under certain conditions, provide better performance in terms of quality indicators. However, due to their high computational complexity and sensitivity to model uncertainty—particularly in methods relying on accurate system identification—PID controllers continue to be widely used in industrial practice. For this reason, the present study focuses on a control system based on a PID controller as a practical solution. Based on the results, it was found that the most effective manipulation occurred within the range from 0.9 to 1.1 of the actual setpoint value for both the first and second method, using a model with $T_m$ between 5 s and 30 s. In these cases, the quality indicators referenced to the nominal values, determined for the falsified control system responses to a step change in the setpoint, were as follows: overshoot—0.97 and 1.30 (method 1), and 0.90 and 1.10 (method 2 for 5 s), 0.75 and 1.30 (method 2 for 30 s); settling time—1.06 (method 1), and 0.98 and 1.17 (method 2 for 5 s), 0.85 and 1.14 (method 2 for 30 s). The settling times determined for the system’s response to a disturbance were: 1.00 and 1.15 (method 1), and 1.13 and 1.16 (method 2 for 5 s), 1.12 and 1.02 (method 2 for 30 s). Based on the conducted analysis, it was demonstrated that the relatively simple setpoint manipulation methods presented can effectively mask the impact of malicious interference on the temperature value in the control system of a heating process.

The aim of this paper i s to descriptive deconstruction methods of socioenergy balance, which are used or can be used in economic disruption of the adversary (competitor).The main research problem is: what methods of socioenergetic imbalance can be legitimately distinguished from the cybernetic pattern of an autonomous system? The following hypothesis is an attempt to solve the research problem: from the cybernetic model of an autonomous system, one can reasonably derive methods of disrupting the socio-energetic equilibrium by interfering with the circulation of information, control processes, and energy distribution within social systems, which leads to the destabilization of decision- -making structures, disorganization of goals, and disruption of feedback loops essential for the system’s selfregulation and adaptation. The considerations are based on the strategy of theory prior to research and the classical method of inference, analogy, opposites and completeness. The authors uses the terminological conventions found in the theory of autonomous systems/processes, information logic, the theory of action systems. The adversary’s disruption is carried out in two main stages, the first: recognition of the object to be destroyed (passive and active), and the second: proper disruption, which consists of direct and indirect disinformation and proper disorganization (indirect and direct). As a concretization of the direct disorganization method, administrative measures (embargoes) and measures based on trade policy (customs duties) are used. Indirect disorganization involves the disruption of economic norms that determine what is economically beneficial to society and the methods of achieving such benefits. The present paper fits into this current of deliberation and metatheoretical search. It is a promising research direction, which complemented by detailed and monodisciplinary knowledge, can improve and deepen the knowledge of security, its essence, manifestations and possibilities of exercising.