Bombus pyrosoma is one of the most abundant bumblebee species in China, with a distribution range of very varied geomorphology and vegetation, which makes it an ideal pollinator species for research into high-altitude adaptation. Here, we sequenced and assembled transcriptomes of B. pyrosoma from the low-altitude North China Plain and the high-altitude Tibet Plateau. Subsequent comparative analysis of de novo transcriptomes from the high- and low-altitude groups identified 675 common upregulated genes (DEGs) in the high-altitude B. pyrosoma. These genes were enriched in metabolic pathways and corresponded to enzyme activities involved in energy metabolism. Furthermore, according to joint analysis with comparative metabolomics, we suggest that the metabolism of coenzyme A (CoA) and the metabolism and transport of energy resources contribute to the adaptation of high-altitude B. pyrosoma. Meanwhile, we found many common upregulated genes enriched in the Toll and immune deficiency (Imd)signaling pathways that act as important immune defenses in insects, and hypoxia and cold temperatures could induce the upregulation of immune genes in insects. Therefore, we suppose that the Toll and Imd signaling pathways also participated in the high-altitude adaptation of B. pyrosoma. Like other organisms, we suggest that the high-altitude adaptation of B. pyrosoma is controlled by diverse mechanisms.

Objective In the context of globalization, industrialization, informatization, and urbanization, rural areas worldwide are undergoing profound transformations. While developed countries have experienced urbanization and counter-urbanization, rural areas in developing countries face challenges such as population outmigration, inefficient land use, and environmental degradation. In view of this, it is essential to build resilient rural systems that can withstand external shocks. Agricultural landscapes, shaped by human-nature interactions, play a crucial role in supporting ecosystems, food security, and biodiversity. This research aims to develop an integrated framework for optimizing agricultural landscape layouts to enhance rural resilience, focusing on biodiversity conservation, process sustainability, functional integration, and green development. By addressing both environmental and socio-economic factors, the research offers actionable strategies for landscape planners, policymakers, and rural development practitioners. Methods/process A system analysis approach is applied. The research adopts a “structure – process – function” analytical framework to examine the temporal and spatial responses of agricultural landscapes to external environmental changes. Multi-dimensional aspects of landscape resilience are explored, including the landscape’s capability to resist, adapt to, and transform external pressures. The research also proposes landscape layout strategies to enhance system resilience. Results/conclusion The research finds that agricultural landscapes have undergone significant restructuring under both long-term disturbances and short-term shocks. Long-term pressures such as climate change, globalization, and urbanization result in the fragmentation and homogenization of agricultural landscapes, while short-term shocks, such as natural disasters or market fluctuations, lead to more immediate and sometimes irreversible changes. These structural shifts highlight the intricate connection between agricultural landscapes and the resilience of human – land coupling systems. Agricultural landscapes play a pivotal role in regulating the flow of materials, energy, nutrients, and species, all of which are essential for the long-term functioning of rural ecosystems. Therefore, optimizing agricultural landscape layout is key to improving system resilience. By adopting targeted strategies, landscapes can be better equipped to withstand external pressures while maintaining core functions such as food production, biodiversity conservation, and socio-cultural continuity. The research proposes four key strategies for enhancing resilience. 1) Biodiversity strategy: Prioritizes habitat restoration and protection by creating ecological corridors and promoting diversified farming systems, such as intercropping, crop rotation, and agroforestry. 2) Process sustainability strategy: Focus on improving the sustainability of nutrient flows, soil quality, and hydrological processes. The research suggests optimizing landscape layouts by incorporating elements such as wetlands, ecological islands, and buffer zones, which help regulate water flow and nutrient distribution. 3) Functional integration strategy: Recognize that modern agricultural landscapes must fulfill multiple roles, including food production, recreation, cultural preservation, and ecological conservation. The research advocates for the construction of multifunctional hubs and networks that integrate these functions within a single landscape. 4) Green development strategy: Integrate natural ecological processes with sustainable agricultural practices. This strategy focuses on reducing environmental costs and resource inputs by promoting green agricultural techniques such as organic farming, reduced fertilizer use, and water-saving irrigation methods. The strategy applies at multiple scales, from large-scale ecosystems involving mountains, rivers, forests, and farmlands, to small-scale sustainable intensification of agricultural fields.