Climate change poses a significant threat to global agriculture, particularly for small-scale farmers who often lack the resources and knowledge to adapt. Without effective coping and adaptation strategies, agriculture in Africa is likely to suffer, leading to increased poverty and food insecurity. Adaptation to climate change is closely linked to farmers’ awareness of the issue, though the extent of this awareness in South Africa remains unclear due to conflicting previous studies. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between climate change awareness, adaptation strategies, and food security among small-scale farmers in the Eastern Cape Province, with the aim of understanding how farmers’ awareness of climate change influences their adaptation decisions and the subsequent impact on agricultural productivity and food security. The study used quantitative analysis to examine the relationship between climate change knowledge, adaptation, and food security. Multi-stage sampling was used to collect data from 200 small-scale farmers through semi-structured questionnaires. Logit regression and endogeneity switching regression were applied for data analysis. The study finds that small-scale farmers in the province are fully aware of climate change and have experienced its negative impacts, especially reduced farm returns (38%) and yields (36%), which threaten agricultural productivity, food security, and farmers’ economic viability. In response, farmers have adopted various strategies, including crop rotation (22%), using improved crop varieties (20%), changing planting dates (12%), and applying fertilizer or mulching (12%). Key factors influencing adaptation include age, access to climate information, education, market proximity, extension services, drought frequency, temperature and rainfall perceptions, radio ownership, farm income, size, and family size. The study shows that these adaptation strategies have improved agricultural yields and farm returns, positively contributing to food security in the area. Based on the study findings, this study recommends that governments and policymakers implement and provide targeted policy interventions, extension services, and educational programs that can enhance climate change knowledge among small-scale farmers.

Home gardens have been identified as one of the possible ways of producing food and offer great solutions to some of the issues surrounding poverty alleviation and improving food security in rural areas. However, home gardens' potential as a living strategy has not been recognized and affected by many factors. Therefore, the study examines socio-economic factors influencing home gardens as a living strategy in rural areas of the Eastern Cape Province. The study was conducted in the Eastern Cape Province rural areas, where data was collected from 200 households using snowball sampling. The study made use of descriptive and logit regression models for analysis. The study results reveal that female households actively participated in home gardens with an average of 46 years. Households were landowners with an average farm size of 3 Ha and owning farm assets. Home gardens contributed immensely to households by providing food for home consumption and generating income from crops and vegetables. The study concludes that Socio-economic factors were the factors influencing home gardens as the living strategy in rural areas. Therefore, the study recommends the provision of external personnel in rural areas to assist home gardeners in improving their productivity.

The smallholder farming sector is crucial in South Africa, serving as a key source of food security and income for numerous rural households. However, in many other African countries, livestock production is a common farming practice that most farmers engage in for various reasons, such as to improve their food security status and well-being. Despite this, certain regions in South Africa witness inefficiencies in smallholder agriculture's ability to alleviate food insecurity, leading some households to engage in off-farm activities to supplement their income. Rural communities grapple with persistent challenges such as unemployment, food insecurity, insufficient income, and limited access to resources and information. This paper aims to assess the role of smallholder livestock farmers on rural household food security, focusing on the Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The study utilised a cross-sectional survey design with 120 livestock farmers obtained through a random sampling method. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 22 was used for analysis, employing descriptive statistics. Additionally, a binary logistic regression model was applied to assess the factors influencing food security by smallholder farmers. The study's findings affirm the profitability of smallholder livestock farming and its positive contribution to household food security. Notably, the results reveal that most farmers engage in cattle farming, followed by goat and sheep production. In light of these findings, the study recommends implementing extension services, farmer-based training, and awareness campaigns to enhance rural households' food security and overall livelihoods. Such initiatives are crucial for addressing the existing challenges and fostering sustainable improvements in smallholder farming communities.

Globally, climate change is a major challenge facing farmers. This phenomenon threatens the sustainability of smallholder farmers in rural communities who depend solely on agriculture. Farmers are known to take suitable steps to adapt when they observe change and adjust their farming practices to cope with climate change. However, livestock farmers' response to climate change is very low due to insufficient scientific and context-based evidence. Hence, this paper sought to investigate the determinants of livestock small-scale farmers' choices and adaptive strategies in response to the effects of climate change in Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality. The study used a cross-sectional research design to collect data from 220 livestock farmers using a semi-structured questionnaire. The study used multinomial logistic regression to analyse the data. Empirical results reveal that access to weather forecasts and extension services, farmers' perception of climate change, level of education, age of the household head, distance to input markets, member of farm organisation, income from livestock sales, and livestock holding affect livestock farming decision for climate change adaptation. Therefore, the study recommends that the government improve farmers' access to accurate and timely agro-meteorological forecasts, capacity building, and technical support for income diversification through improved provision of agricultural extension services.

Experiential learning and discovery through farmer field schools (FFS) have the potential to empower smallholder livestock farmers who face heightened vulnerability to climate change. However, there are various levels of learning and discovery in FFS that can inform smallholder livestock farmer knowledge and perception. Understanding this is vital, as farmers’ perceptions influence their readiness to adopt climate-smart practices, informing effective resilience-building strategies. Therefore, this study sought to investigate and assess the impact of the FFS approach on smallholder livestock farmers’ perceptions of climate change, taking Raymond Local Municipality in South Africa as a case. The design followed by the study was a longitudinal survey, with three pools each signifying various FFS intervention points. The study utilized simple random sampling to collect data from 80 smallholder livestock farmers using structured questionnaires in each of the three cross-sectional pools, while descriptive statistics, Min–Max Normalization, and t-tests were used for analysis. The results show that there was an increase in the awareness of climate change due to the interventions of the FFS. Furthermore, there are cumulative differences between the knowledge and perception towards climate change between the three pooled cross-sections. In conclusion, participating in FFS had a significant impact on farmers’ level of understanding and adaptation to climate change. The study recommends that the government and policymakers extensively promote FFS and support them financially so that they can provide more support to rural farmers as well as enhance knowledge on climate change. This study recommends the provision of workshops and awareness campaigns on climate change for farmers through FFS as this will assist farmers to be more sustainable on their farming systems and production.

In recent years, adaptation to climate change has become a global focus; therefore, the present study was conducted in Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality to understand the adaptation strategies employed by smallholder farmers to the adverse impact of climate change and to examine the extent to which institutional factors play a role in farmers' decisions to adapt to climate change. Using a multistage research design, data were collected from 120 smallholder farmers by administering a pre-tested questionnaire with both open- and closed-ended questions. The collected data were analysed using descriptive statistics and a binary logistic regression model. The results revealed that farmers employed crop diversification, crop rotation, calendar redefinition, resilient crop varieties, and tree planting as adaptation strategies in response to climate change. The binary logistic regression model results indicated that access to extension services, climate change information, and farmers' organisations influenced farmers' decisions to adopt climate change adaptation strategies. Policymakers should focus on enhancing rural institutional services and increasing climate change education to improve smallholder farmers' capacity in a changing climate.