Human-environment relationship is a focus of academic researches and an understanding of the relationship is important for making effective policies and decisions. In this study, based on rural household survey data of Taibus Banner, Duolun county and Zhengxiangbai Banner in the Inner Mongolia autonomous region of China, we identified the impact of livelihood diversification on ecosystems in these agro-pastoral areas by using the ecological footprint theory and methodology together with the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and correlation analysis methods. In 2011, the total ecological footprint of consumption (EFC) was 0.665 g hm², and the total ecological footprint of production (EFP) was 2.045 g hm², which was more than three times the EFC. The ecological footprint of arable land consumption (EFAC) accounted for a large proportion of the EFC, and the ecological footprint of grassland production (EFGP) occupied a large proportion of the EFP. Both the ecological footprint of grassland consumption (EFGC) and EFGP had a significant positive correlation with the income, indicating that income was mainly depended on livestock production and the households with higher incomes consumed more livestock products. The full-time farming households (FTFHs) had the highest EFP, ecological footprint of arable land production (EFAP), EFGP and EFGC, followed by the part-time farming households (PTFHs) and non-farming households (NFHs), which indicated that part-time farming and non-farming employment reduced the occupancy and consumption of rural households on local ecosystems and natural resources to some extent. When farming households engaged in livestock rearing, both the EFAP and EFAC became smaller, while the EFP, EFC, EFGC and EFGP increased significantly. The differences in ecological footprints among different household groups should be taken into account when making ecosystem conservation policies. Encouraging the laborers who have the advantages of participating in non-farming employment to move out of the rural areas and increasing the diversification of livelihoods of rural households are important in reducing the environmental pressures and improving the welfare of households in the study area. Moreover, grassland should be utilized more effectively in the future.

The conflict between biodiversity conservation and economic development is intense in developing countries. With the decline in biodiversity, the Chinese government imposed a 10-year fishing ban in the priority waters of the Yangtze River Basin, which resulted in many fishermen losing their livelihood. However, a compensation policy was subsequently introduced. To investigate the impact of the ban, we conducted a two-year study using balanced panel data and the PSM-DID model for 365 households in the Poyang Lake area and introduced fixed effects to discuss the impact of the Yangtze River fishing ban compensation policy on the income of returning fishermen and their choices for alternative income. We also explored the interactive effects of fishing ban compensation and other biodiversity conservation policies on their income. The results showed that the fishing ban negatively impacted the agricultural income of households but not the total household income, and the compensation somewhat subsidized the fishermen’s loss of income. Moreover, this was an opportunity for farmers to adjust their livelihood strategies. These findings improve our understanding of the impact of this fishing ban and compensation policy on the household incomes of returning fishermen and their adaptive strategies for alternative income.

Background: Wetland restoration is an important measure for restoring wetland ecosystems and their ecological benefits, with the goal of restoring their ecological functions and resources. However, wetland restoration affects farmers' incomes and livelihoods. Although existing research has contributed to a deeper understanding of the relationship between wetland restoration and farmers' household incomes, some issues require further consideration. Therefore, here, we aimed to analyse the impact of wetland restoration on farmers' incomes and provide empirical evidence for the coordination mechanism of protection and development in the Poyang Lake Wetland in Jiangxi Province.Methods: Based on 2 years of balanced panel data of 365 households around the Poyang Lake wetland, this study analysed the influence of policies related to wetland restoration and how variables such as the cultivated land area, labour force transfer, and location of nature reserves impact farmers' income. To this end, we used a two-way fixed-effect model to test the robustness by using propensity score matching, and the influence mechanisms of wetland protection policies, such as wetland restoration, wetland ecological compensation, and the Yangtze River fishing ban, on farmers' income interactions were explored.Results and discussion: The results showed that, due to the policy of wetland restoration was implemented a long time ago, the negative impact of the policy on reducing farmers' household income is not significant now. Further, farmers' family livelihood strategies have changed, and choosing other types of agricultural production and off farm employment are currently the main choices for farmers. Wetland restoration has changed their income structures. Additionally, the two wetland restoration policies and banning of fishing have had synergistic effects. The findings of this study are helpful in understanding how wetland restoration around nature reserves influences farmers' household incomes. Further, they can provide policy insights for promoting an increase in income and the optimization of the income structure of communities around lake wetland nature reserves.