Nematode-trapping fungi are “carnivorous” and attack their hosts using specialized trapping devices. The morphological development of these traps is the key indicator of their switch from saprophytic to predacious lifestyles. Here, the genome of the nematode-trapping fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora Fres. (ATCC24927) was reported. The genome contains 40.07 Mb assembled sequence with 11,479 predicted genes. Comparative analysis showed that A. oligospora shared many more genes with pathogenic fungi than with non-pathogenic fungi. Specifically, compared to several sequenced ascomycete fungi, the A. oligospora genome has a larger number of pathogenicity-related genes in the subtilisin, cellulase, cellobiohydrolase, and pectinesterase gene families. Searching against the pathogen-host interaction gene database identified 398 homologous genes involved in pathogenicity in other fungi. The analysis of repetitive sequences provided evidence for repeat-induced point mutations in A. oligospora. Proteomic and quantitative PCR (qPCR) analyses revealed that 90 genes were significantly up-regulated at the early stage of trap-formation by nematode extracts and most of these genes were involved in translation, amino acid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, cell wall and membrane biogenesis. Based on the combined genomic, proteomic and qPCR data, a model for the formation of nematode trapping device in this fungus was proposed. In this model, multiple fungal signal transduction pathways are activated by its nematode prey to further regulate downstream genes associated with diverse cellular processes such as energy metabolism, biosynthesis of the cell wall and adhesive proteins, cell division, glycerol accumulation and peroxisome biogenesis. This study will facilitate the identification of pathogenicity-related genes and provide a broad foundation for understanding the molecular and evolutionary mechanisms underlying fungi-nematodes interactions. The fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora has multiple lifestyles. It's not only a nematode pathogen, but also a saprophyte, a pathogen of other fungi, and a colonizer of plant roots. As a nematode pathogen, A. oligospora forms adhesive networks to capture nematodes and is a model organism for understanding the interaction between these fungi and their host nematodes. In this study, the whole genome sequence of A. oligospora was reported. Our analyses of the proteome profiles of intracellular proteins from cells treated with nematode extracts for 10 h and 48 h revealed a key set of genes involved in trap formation. The changes in protein levels for some trap formation related genes were further confirmed by qPCR. The combined genome and proteome analysis identified the major genetic and metabolic pathways involved in trap formation in A. oligospora. Our results provide the first glimpse into the genome and proteome of this fascinating group of carnivorous fungi. The data should serve as a roadmap for further investigations into the interaction between nematode-trapping fungi and their host nematodes, providing broad foundations for research on the biocontrol of pathogenic nematodes.

The cyclic dinucleotide c-di-GMP synthesized by the diadenylate cyclase domain was recently discovered as a messenger molecule for signaling DNA breaks in Bacillus subtilis. By searching bacterial genomes, we identified a family of DHH/DHHA1 domain proteins (COG3387) that co-occur with a subset of the diadenylate cyclase domain proteins. Here we report that the B. subtilis protein YybT, a member of the COG3387 family proteins, exhibits phosphodiesterase activity toward cyclic dinucleotides. The DHH/DHHA1 domain hydrolyzes c-di-AMP and c-di-GMP to generate the linear dinucleotides 5′-pApA and 5′-pGpG. The data suggest that c-di-AMP could be the physiological substrate for YybT given the physiologically relevant Michaelis-Menten constant (K_m) and the presence of YybT family proteins in the bacteria lacking c-di-GMP signaling network. The bacterial regulator ppGpp was found to be a strong competitive inhibitor of the DHH/DHHA1 domain, suggesting that YybT is under tight control during stringent response. In addition, the atypical GGDEF domain of YybT exhibits unexpected ATPase activity, distinct from the common diguanylate cyclase activity for GGDEF domains. We further demonstrate the participation of YybT in DNA damage and acid resistance by characterizing the phenotypes of the ΔyybT mutant. The novel enzymatic activity and stress resistance together point toward a role for YybT in stress signaling and response.

EAL domain proteins are the major phosphodiesterases for maintaining the cellular concentration of second-messenger cyclic di-GMP in bacteria. Given the pivotal roles of EAL domains in the regulation of many bacterial behaviors, the elucidation of their catalytic and regulatory mechanisms would contribute to the effort of deciphering the cyclic di-GMP signaling network. Here, we present data to show that RocR, an EAL domain protein that regulates the expression of virulence genes and biofilm formation inPseudomonas aeruginosaPAO-1, catalyzes the hydrolysis of cyclic di-GMP by using a general base-catalyzed mechanism with the assistance of Mg²⁺ion. In addition to the five essential residues involved in Mg²⁺binding, we propose that the essential residue E₃₅₂functions as a general base catalyst assisting the deprotonation of Mg²⁺-coordinated water to generate the nucleophilic hydroxide ion. The mutation of other conserved residues caused various degree of changes in thek_catorK_m, leading us to propose their roles in residue positioning and substrate binding. With functions assigned to the conserved groups in the active site, we discuss the molecular basis for the lack of activity of some characterized EAL domain proteins and the possibility of predicting the phosphodiesterase activities for the vast number of EAL domains in bacterial genomes in light of the catalytic mechanism.

Temperature-dependent hydrogen-deuterium (H/D) exchange of the thermophilic alcohol dehydrogenase (htADH) has been studied by using liquid chromatography-coupled mass spectrometry. Analysis of the changes in H/D exchange patterns for the protein-derived peptides suggests that some regions of htADH are in a rigid conformational substate at reduced temperatures with limited cooperative protein motion. The enzyme undergoes two discrete transitions at ≈30 and 45°C to attain a more dynamic conformational substate. Four of the five peptides exhibiting the transition above 40°C are in direct contact with the cofactor, and the NAD ⁺ -binding affinity is also altered in this temperature range, implicating a change in the mobility of the cofactor-binding domain >45°C. By contrast, the five peptides exhibiting the transition at 30°C reside in the substrate-binding domain. This transition coincides with a change in the activation energy of k _cat for hydride transfer, leading to a linear correlation between k _cat and the weighted average exchange rate constant k _HX(WA) for the five peptides. These observations indicate a direct coupling between hydride transfer and protein mobility in htADH, and that an increased mobility is at least partially responsible for the reduced E _act at high temperature. The data provide support for the hypothesis that protein dynamics play a key role in controlling hydrogen tunneling at enzyme active sites.

For years, fungi have served as repositories of bioactive secondary metabolites that form the backbone of many existing drugs. With the global rise in infections associated with antimicrobial resistance, in addition to the growing burden of non-communicable disease, such as cancer, diabetes and cardiovascular ailments, the demand for new drugs that can provide an improved therapeutic outcome has become the utmost priority. The exploration of microbes from understudied and specialized niches is one of the promising ways of discovering promising lead molecules for drug discovery. In recent years, a special class of plant-associated fungi, namely, fungal endophytes, have emerged as an important source of bioactive compounds with unique chemistry and interesting biological activities. The present review focuses on endophytic fungi and their classification, rationale for selection and prioritization of host plants for fungal isolation and examples of strategies that have been adopted to induce the activation of cryptic biosynthetic gene clusters to enhance the biosynthetic potential of fungal endophytes.