Executive functions (EFs) are higher-order cognitive control processes that enable goal-directed behavior, self-regulation, and adaptive functioning across the lifespan. A widely adopted theoretical framework conceptualizes core executive functions as inhibitory control, updating of working memory representations, and cognitive flexibility, rather than treating working memory as an executive function per se. Despite extensive research, the accurate assessment of executive functions remains a major challenge due to their multidimensional and context-dependent nature. This narrative review, informed by systematic search principles, synthesizes peer-reviewed literature published between 2000 and 2024 on executive function assessment. Searches were conducted in Scopus, PubMed, JSTOR, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and HEAL-Link. A total of 85 sources were screened, with 12 representative empirical studies and reviews selected for synthesis. Four major assessment approaches were identified: performance-based tests, computerized assessments, rating scales, and neuroimaging techniques. Each approach offers unique strengths, but also significant limitations related to ecological validity, subjectivity, accessibility, and cost. No single method adequately captures the complexity of executive functioning. The review argues for a multimethod assessment framework integrating behavioral, subjective, and neurobiological measures, and highlights the need for cross-cultural validation, digital innovation, and early identification to improve research and applied practice.

Background: Language barriers remain a major obstacle to equitable healthcare access for immigrants and refugees across Europe. Greece, as both a transit and host country, faces persistent challenges in providing linguistically and culturally appropriate care. Methods: This study presents a narrative literature review synthesizing international, European, and Greek evidence on the effects of limited language proficiency, professional interpretation, and intercultural mediation on healthcare access, patient safety, satisfaction, and clinical outcomes. Peer-reviewed studies and selected grey literature were identified through searches of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and CINAHL. Results: The evidence consistently demonstrates that the absence of professional interpretation is associated with substantially higher rates of clinically significant communication errors, longer hospital stays, increased readmissions, and higher healthcare costs. In contrast, the use of trained medical interpreters and intercultural mediators improves comprehension, shared decision-making, patient satisfaction, and clinical outcomes. Comparative European data from Italy, Spain, Germany, and Sweden show that institutionalized interpretation systems outperform Greece’s fragmented, NGO-dependent approach. Greek studies further reveal that limited proficiency in Greek is associated with reduced service utilization, longer waiting times, and lower patient satisfaction. Conclusions: This narrative review highlights the urgent need for Greece to adopt a coordinated, professionally staffed interpretation and intercultural mediation framework. Strengthening linguistic support within the healthcare system is essential for improving patient safety, equity, efficiency, and the integration of migrant and refugee populations.