Introduction: It is well documented that the prevalence of venous leg ulcers (VLUs) is increasing, coinciding with an ageing population. Accurate global prevalence of VLUs is difficult to estimate due to the range of methodologies used in studies and accuracy of reporting. ¹ Venous ulceration is the most common type of leg ulceration and a significant clinical problem, affecting approximately 1% of the population and 3% of people over 80 years of age ² in westernised countries. Moreover, the global prevalence of VLUs is predicted to escalate dramatically, as people are living longer, often with multiple comorbidities. Recent figures on the prevalence of VLUs are based on a small number of studies, conducted in Western countries, and the evidence is weak. However, it is estimated that 93% of VLUs will heal in 12 months, and 7% remain unhealed after five years. ³ Furthermore, the recurrence rate within 3 months after wound closure is as high as 70%. ^{4 -6} Thus, cost-effective adjunct evidence-based treatment strategies and services are needed to help prevent these ulcers, facilitate healing when they occur and prevent recurrence. The impact of a VLU represents social, personal, financial and psychological costs on the individual and further economic drain on the health-care system. This brings the challenge of providing a standardised leg ulcer service which delivers evidence-based treatment for the patient and their ulcer. It is recognised there are variations in practice and barriers preventing the implementation of best practice. There are patients not receiving appropriate and timely treatment in the initial development of VLUs, effective management of their VLU and preventing recurrence once the VLU has healed. Health-care professionals (HCPs) and organisations must have confidence in the development process of clinical practice guidelines and have ownership of these guidelines to ensure those of the highest quality guide their practice. These systematic judgments can assist in policy development, and decision making, improve communication, reduce errors and improve patient outcomes. There is an abundance of studies and guidelines that are available and regularly updated, however, there is still variation in the quality of the services offered to patients with a VLU. There are also variations in the evidence and some recommendations contradict each other, which can cause confusion and be a barrier to implementation. ⁷ The difference in health-care organisational structures, management support and the responsibility of VLU management can vary in different countries, often causing confusion and a barrier to seeking treatment. These factors further complicate the guideline implementation process, which is generally known to be a challenge with many diseases. ⁸

Background: Honey has previously been shown to have wound healing and antimicrobial properties, but this is dependent on the type of honey, geographical location and flower from which the final product is derived. We tested the antimicrobial activity of a Chilean honey made byApis mellifera(honeybee) originating from the Ulmo tree (Eucryphia cordifolia), against selected strains of bacteria.Methods: Ulmo 90 honey was compared with manuka UMF^®25+ (Comvita^®) honey and a laboratory synthesised (artificial) honey. An agar well diffusion assay and a 96 well minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) spectrophotometric-based assay were used to assess antimicrobial activity against five strains of methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus(MRSA),Escherichia coliandPseudomonas aeruginosa.Results: Initial screening with the agar diffusion assay demonstrated that Ulmo 90 honey had greater antibacterial activity against all MRSA isolates tested than manuka honey and similar activity againstE. coliandP. aeruginosa. The MIC assay, showed that a lower MIC was observed with Ulmo 90 honey (3.1% - 6.3% v/v) than with manuka honey (12.5% v/v) for all five MRSA isolates. For theE. coliandPseudomonasstrains equivalent MICs were observed (12.5% v/v). The MIC for artificial honey was 50% v/v. The minimum bactericidal concentration for all isolates tested for Ulmo 90 honey was identical to the MIC. Unlike manuka honey, Ulmo 90 honey activity is largely due to hydrogen peroxide production.Conclusions: Due to its high antimicrobial activity, Ulmo 90 may warrant further investigation as a possible alternative therapy for wound healing.

Mupirocin 2% ointment is used either alone or with skin antiseptics as part of a comprehensive MRSA decolonization strategy. Increased mupirocin use predisposes to mupirocin resistance, which is significantly associated with persistent MRSA carriage. Mupirocin resistance as high as 81% has been reported. There is a strong association between previous mupirocin exposure and both low-level and high-level mupirocin resistance. High-level mupirocin resistance (mupA carriage) is also linked to MDR. Among MRSA isolates, the presence of the qacA and/or qacB gene, encoding resistance to chlorhexidine, ranges from 65% to 91%, which, along with mupirocin resistance, is associated with failed decolonization. This is of significant concern for patient care and infection prevention and control strategies as both these agents are used concurrently for decolonization. Increasing bacterial resistance necessitates the discovery or development of new antimicrobial therapies. These include, for example, polyhexanide, lysostaphin, ethanol, omiganan pentahydrochloride, tea tree oil, probiotics, bacteriophages and honey. However, few of these have been evaluated fully or extensively tested in clinical trials and this is required to in part address the implications of mupirocin resistance.

Objective: To determine the qualitative bacteriological changes that occurred during a four-week treatment period with either manuka honey or a hydrogel dressing. This was the secondary outcome of a randomised controlled trial (RCT) that compared the efficacy of the two treatments in desloughing venous leg ulcers.Method: This was a prospective open label multicentre RCT with blinded microbiological outcome analysis. Randomisation was conducted via remote telephone. To be included, the wound bed needed to comprise at least 50% slough. Wound swabs were taken at the start of treatment and after four weeks.Results: In all, 108 patients (35 males, 73 females) aged 24–89 years (mean 68) enrolled into the study. Both groups were comparable at baseline. Eighteen patients (17%) were withdrawn due to a wound infection: six in the honey group and 12 in the hydrogel group. Staphylococcus aureus was the most common isolate, being identified in 41 wounds (38%). At baseline, meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus was identified in 16 wounds (10 honey versus six hydrogel). After four weeks 70% (n=7) of the manuka-honey treated wounds versus 16% (n=1) of the hydrogel treated wounds had MRSA eradicated. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was reported in 14% (n=16) of all wounds at baseline. After four weeks 33% (n=2) treated with honey and 50% (n=5) treated with hydrogel had this eliminated. The number of wounds (n=11 at baseline; n=15 at week 4) with ≥3 bacteria species remained constant over the four weeks.Conclusion: Manuka honey was effective in eradicating MRSA from 70% of chronic venous ulcers. The potential to prevent infection is increased when wounds are desloughed and MRSA is eliminated. This can be beneficial to prevent cross-infection.Declaration of interest: None.