Bioactive peptides (BAPs) obtained from plants and microbes have been thoroughly explored and studied due to their prophylactic properties. The use of BAPs seems to be a promising substitute for several currently available antibiotics because of their antimicrobial properties against foodborne pathogens. BAPs have several other useful properties including antitumor, antihypertensive, antioxidant, antiobesity, and antidiabetic activities. Nowadays, scientists have attempted to recombinantly synthesize bioactive peptides to study their characteristics and potential uses, since BAPs are not found in large quantities in nature. Many pathogenic microorganisms including foodborne pathogens are becoming resistant to various antibiotics. To combat these pathogens, scientists are working to find novel, innovative, and safe antimicrobial agents. Plant‐ and microbe‐based BAPs have demonstrated noteworthy antimicrobial activity against a wide range of pathogenic microorganisms, including foodborne pathogens. BAPs can kill pathogenic microorganisms by disrupting membrane integrity, inhibiting DNA and RNA synthesis, preventing protein synthesis, blocking protein activity, or interacting with certain intracellular targets. In addition, the positive effect of BAP consumption extends to gut microbiota modulation and affects the equilibrium of reactive oxygen species in the gut. This article discusses recombinant BAPs, BAPs generated from plants and microbes, and their antimicrobial applications and modes of action for controlling foodborne pathogens.

Autophagy is a unique catabolic process that degrades irrelevant or damaged components in eukaryotic cells to maintain homeostasis and eliminate infections from pathogenesis. Pathogenic bacteria have developed many autophagy manipulation techniques that affect host immune responses and intracellular bacterial pathogens have evolved to avoid xenophagy. However, reducing its effectiveness as an innate immune response has not yet been elucidated. Bacterial pathogens cause autophagy in infected cells as a cell-autonomous defense mechanism to eliminate the pathogen. However, harmful bacteria have learned to control autophagy and defeat host defenses. Intracellular bacteria can stimulate and control autophagy, while others inhibit it to prevent xenophagy and lysosomal breakdown. This review evaluates the putative functions for xenophagy in regulating bacterial infection, emphasizing that successful pathogens have evolved strategies to disrupt or exploit this defense, reducing its efficiency in innate immunity. Instead, animal models show that autophagy-associated proteins influence bacterial pathogenicity outside of xenophagy. We also examine the consequences of the complex interaction between autophagy and bacterial pathogens in light of current efforts to modify autophagy and develop host-directed therapeutics to fight bacterial infections. Therefore, effective pathogens have evolved to subvert or exploit xenophagy, although autophagy-associated proteins can influence bacterial pathogenicity outside of xenophagy. Finally, this review implies how the complex interaction between autophagy and bacterial pathogens affects host-directed therapy for bacterial pathogenesis.

The excessive use of heavy metals and antibiotics as additives in livestock feed may significantly contribute to bacterial resistance in poultry environments by exerting selective pressure. This study aimed to comprehensively analyze bacterial isolates from poultry farms across Bangladesh, focusing on their resistance to heavy metals and antibiotics. Through microbial phenotypic screening, 23 cadmium-resistant and 28 chromium-resistant bacterial isolates were identified. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for cadmium and chromium in metal-resistant bacterial isolates varied significantly, ranging from 200 μg/ml to 1600 μg/ml. All cadmium-resistant isolates were fully resistant to cefixime and ceftazidime, while chromium-resistant isolates showed 90% resistance to tetracycline. The cadmium resistance gene, such as czc , was detected in 26% (6/23) of cadmium-resistant isolates, and the chromium reductase gene chrR was detected in 18% (5/28) of chromium-resistant isolates. Among the chromium-reductase isolates, 40% (2/5) exhibited co-resistance and harbored the chrR gene, beta-lactam resistance genes ( bla-TEM , bla-NDM ), and the colistin resistance gene ( mcr-2 ). A significant association (p = 0.026) was observed between the presence of the chrR gene and these antibiotic resistance genes. However, no co-resistance was found in cadmium-resistant isolates. Mobile genetic elements, specifically Class 1 integrons, were found in 33.33% (2/6) of the isolates carrying the cadmium resistance gene ( czc ) and in 100% (5/5) of the isolates containing the chromium reductase gene ( chrR ). These findings underscore poultry environments in Bangladesh as significant reservoirs for bacteria with dual resistance to heavy metals and antibiotics, emphasizing the need for further investigation into the genetic mechanisms driving microbial resistance and its implications for public health.

Landfill leachates in rapidly urbanizing regions like Dhaka present a complex ecological challenge owing to the concurrent buildup of heavy metals and plastic waste. Despite the severity of this pollution, the role of indigenous multi-functional bacteria in mitigating these mixed contaminants remains poorly understood. This research sought to isolate and characterize bacteria resistant to heavy metals and capable of degrading plastics from the Aminbazar and Matuail landfills and evaluate their bioremediation potential. Physicochemical analysis confirmed extreme contamination, with heavy metal levels (Pb, Cr, Cd, Cu) significantly exceeding WHO safety limits. Out of 81 isolates, nearly half exhibited multi-metal resistance and polyethylene (PE) degradation capacity. Statistical analysis showed a significant correlation between plastic degradation and multi-metal tolerance, suggesting a linked evolutionary adaptation. Enzymatic assays confirmed enzymes (e.g., urease, catalase, citrate and esterase) as drivers of both plastic degradation and heavy metal tolerance in leading isolates. Molecular screening identified the resistance genes pbrA and alkB , while the high prevalence of Class 1 integrons (80% in pbrA -positive isolates) points to a high potential for horizontal gene transfer in these environments. Furthermore, MALDI-TOF MS identified the functional isolates as Bacillus sp. with FTIR verifying the contribution of specific cell-surface functional groups to metal biosorption. These results underscore the promise of native Bacillus strains as promising agents for the development of sustainable, integrated biotechnologies for landfill restoration and complex waste management.